New Light on Buddhism in Medieval India

Waley, Arthur
Melanges chinois et bouddhiques
Vol. 1931-1932
Juillet 1932
P.355-376


P.355 The document(1) here translated is the preface to a `poetical inscription' on a stuupa erected in memory of the Indian priest Dhyaanabhadra, also called `Suunyaadi'sya, at the Korean temple Kuei-yen Ssuu (Juniper Rock temple). It was composed in the summer of 1378(2) by a certain Li Se who, previous to the fall of the Mongols in 1368, had been Secretary to the Mongol Administration of Manehuria and Korea. The work is interestin for several reasons. To begin with, it shows that Buddhism survived in India Propter at the beginning of the 14th century to an extent far greater than has hitherto been suspected. To find Buddhism at such a date in Bengal is indeed no surprise. But in Dhyaanabhadra's narrative we find it also at Kaa~ncipura (Madras Presidency),in the Chola Kingdom (Coromandel coast) and at Jaalandhara (Punjab). Two further centres of Buddhism are mentioned: Da- ra-va and Ka-ra-na.That the first is Dvaaravatiipura, the capital of the Hoysala Ballalas, seems to me almost certain. The Tripi.taka, in a footnote, gives the equivalent Daarva, without however making it clear whether such a place ever existed. Karana is identified by the Tripi.taka with Mysore. This must, I think, be based on a supposed equivalence Karana = Kana.ra, the name of the Dravidian dialect now spoken in Mysore. Such an identification is most improbable. I would suggest(3) that 'Karana' is 'the kingdom of king Karan', native ruler of Gujerat, whence he was expelled by the Moslems in 1927,but still reigned at Nandurbaar (east of Gujerat) at the beginning of the 14th century. ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Printed in the Taishoo Tripi.taka,Vol. LI, p.982, with footnotes (by Prof. Takakusu). 2 The date given(Hsuan Kuang 8th year)is according to the calendar of the Mongols who had retired to Karakorum; this reckoning was commonly used in Korea at the time. The cyclical date given is mou-wu which makes it certain that 1378 is meant, though according to some chronological tables the period Hsuan Kuang ceased in 1377. 3 This theory is put forward only as a possibility. P.356 Our narrative is interesting in the second place because of the light it throws on the kind of Buddhism that survived. One knows, for example, that in Ceylon in early days the Mahaayaana existed side by side with the Hiinayaana. But it is unexpected to find that at this late date a pilgrim should still be sent to Ceylon to study Mahaayaana. Again, it has been generally supposed that such Buddhism as survived in Central and Eastern India was, at any time subsequent to the 9th century, exclusively Tantrie.But Dhyaanabhadra is definitely anti-Tantric. He may indeed, with his prevailing interest in the Praj~naapaaramitaa and Avata^nsaka Suutras, be described as a rather old-fashioned Mahaayaanist. The third point of interest is that his Buddhism is coloured with certain characteristies which show great affinity with the Zen(Dhyaana) Buddhism of China and Japan. The method of sudden Awakening by means of violence, brusquerie, riddles, shouts, beatings, startling and 'gratuitous' acts of all kinds appears repeatedly in these pages, long before the Master's arrival in China. And just as in China it is against Tantrism that the hostility of the Zen priests is principally directed, so we find Dhyaanabhadra ridiculing the supposed magical power of Tantrie invocations. It is of course possible that Dhyaanabhadra's re- collections were coloured by his long residence in China, and allowance must be made for the fact that it was a Chinese who committed these recollections to writing. Even so, Ithink the document suggests the existence in 14th century India, of a type of Buddhism very different from what we should have expected. It also raises the question whether many aspects of Zen which have been regarded as originating in China may not, after all, like other developments of Buddhism, have been importations from India. The value of the document would of course be greatly enhanced if we could discover the exact dated of Dhyaanabhadra's story. We know that he started from Magadha at the age of 19(18 in our reckoning). If we are to believe the theory (see below, p.25) that he died in 1363 at the age of 127, he must have set out in 1254, his wanderings in India lasting about 70 years. It is of course not impossible that he lived to this great age, but it is unlikely, and the assertion that he did so is based on a very uncertain computation. Such stories however would not have been circulated unless Dhyaanabhadra had lived to a considerable age. Provisionally I think we may assume that his wanderings took place mainly in the first quarter of the 14th century. Our ignorance of the fortunes of Buddhism in India at this period is due to the fact that our information is derived chiefly from Moslem sources which do not trouble to distinguish Buddhism from Hinduism, or from P.357 Hindu sources which are unwilling to admit the existence of rival creed. From Taaranaatha(1) indeed we get a rather dim picture of the survival of Buddhism in Bengal and Orissa down to an even later period. But he gives no definite information about the fate of Buddhism in other parts of India Proper at this period; moreover the historical elements in his narrative are hard to disentangle from the legendary. In Dhyaanabhadra, too, we could wish for a greater precision. No distances or times taken are mentioned, nor apparently is chronological order always preserved. This makes the identification of some of the places that he mentions a matter of considerable difficulty, but no doubt an expert in Indian topography and history could carry the matter a good deal further than I have done. There is one matter which it will be more conveni- ent to treat here than in a footnote. In the presence of the 'King of Karana' Dhyaanabhadra expounds the 'Mahe'svara Hetubhuumi Varga of the Ta[Sh^eng] Chuang Yen Pao Wang Ching (literally, Mahaayaana Vyuuha Ratnaraaja Suutra). The sutra in question is obviously the Kaara.n.da Vyuuha, which exists in Sanskrit in two forms, one metrical, the other in prose. The metrical version, analysed by Burnouf(2), contains a description of Mahe'svara's origin and functions; the prose version merely says that he emanated from Avalokite'svara's forehead, though 'in the evil days to come men will cling to the notion that Mahe'svara existed from the beginning of time and was always ruler and lord.'(3) I think what Dhyaanabhadra took as his text was something more developed than the existing prose version, though it may not have been so prloix as the Nepalese metrical version. It may here be worth while correcting a misapprehension that has been caused by the mention, in the poetical version, of the doctrine of the AAdi-Buddha(4) .Professor Berriedale Keith(5) says that the Kaara.n.da Vyuuha was translated into Chinese in 270 A.D., and continues: 'This text is remark- ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 History of Indian Buddhism, 1608 A.D. Translated from the Tibetan by A.Schiefner, 1869. 2 Introduction a l'Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien, p.221 seq. 3 Taishoo Tripi.taka,Vol.XX, p.49. Dhyaanabhadra's object in expounding this passage was doubtless to show a 'Saivite monarch that even in Buddhism Mahe'svara ('Siva) held an important position, but at the same time to persuade him that it was false to regard 'Siva as the origin of all things. 4 A theistic doctrine developed in Nepal, under Hindu influence, probably not before the tenth century. 5 Buddhist Philosophy, p. 226. P.358 able for its patronage of the doctrine of an AAdi-Buddha.' This might lead the reader to suppose that the cult of AAdi-Buddha existed in the 3rd century A.D. In point of fact the only Chinese version of the Kaara.n.da Vyuha is that made by Deva'saantika (T'ien-hsi-tsai) between 980 and 1000 A.D.(1) Nanjio does indeed give a cross-reference to his NO. 168(2), which was translated in 270 A.D. But this suutra (No.168) has no connexion with the Kaaranda Vyuuha except in resemblance of title(3). Even if it were identical with Nanjio's 782, it would still contain no reference to the Adi-Buddha; for the passage about that divinity occurs only in the very late metrical version of the Kaara.n.da Vyuuha, and the Chinese translation was made from the prose version, the only one that is known outside Nepal. Referring again to the conception of the AAdi-Bud- dha, Professor Keith says on p.301 of the same work that this conception was evidently current in the 4th century, because 'it is condemned by Asa^nga.'(4) The passage(5) in question is one in Chapter IX of the Mahaayaanasuutraala^nkaara. The Chinese translation, admittedly much less corrupt and obscure(6) than the Sanskrit text, does not for a moment suggest that Asa^nga is refuting anything in the least resembling the theistic heresy of the Nepalese AAdi-Buddha theory. He is merely proving that is equally false to say that Buddha is a plurality as to say that he is a unity. The original (in Chinese 'beginningless') Buddha whose existence Asa^nga denies, is not an AAdi-Buddha from whom all other Buddhas are derived and to whom they are in a sense inferior, but simply a supposed initial Buddha in the chain of Buddhas. Asa^nga merely argues that the chain stretches back indefinitely. An article on Dhyaanabhadra (which I have been unable to procure) was published by Professor Takakusu in Zengaku Zasshi,August 1919(Vol.XXII, NO.8). ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Nanjio No.782;Taishoo Tripi.taka, Vol. XX, p.47. 2 Taishoo Tripi.taka, Vol. XIV, p.452. 3 Ratnakaara.nda Vyuuha. 4 [Meme opinion dans La Vallee Poussin,Bouddhisme, Opinions(3), p.264]. 5 Taishoo Tripi.taka, Vol. XXXI, p.607. 6 Professor Sylvain L'evi tells us in the intro- duction to his edition of the text, that without the aid of the Chinese version his task would have been impossible. P.359 Preface to the Inscription on Dhyanabhadra's Stupa. The 108th descendant of Kaa'syapa, the Venerable Dhyaanabhadra (Chinese, Ch'an-hsien) was called 'Suunyaadi'sya {Chinese, Chih-k'ung, ((Finger pointing at the Void))}. In the period T'ai-ting (1324-1327) he had audience with the Emperor(1) on the banks of the Onan River(2) and expounded the teachings of Buddha. An Imperial Command decreed that he was henceforward to receive from the Emperor's officers a yearly supply of clothes and grain. But he said that was not what he had come for, and went away. Travelling eastward he arrived in Korea, where he did reverence to the cell of Fa-ch'i on the Diamond Mountain(3). An Imperial Command brought him back to Peking. At the beginning of the T'ien-li period (1328) he was ordered by the Emperor(4), along with other priests in attendance, to discourse on the Law in the Emperor's Inner Palace. His Majesty was present in person. The other priests, elated by this condscension, gave themselves great airs, bustling about with the utmost self-importance. The master was disgusted by their arrogance and felt unable to take any part in the proceedings. Before long, however, these priessts were either exiled or discredited; whereas the Master's fame soon resounded all over China and beyond. In the period Chih-cheng (1341-1368)the Empress(5) and Crown Prince(6) brought the Master to Court and asked him questions about ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Yasun Tamur. 2 In Mongolia. 3 On the east coast of Korea. The Avata^msaka Suutra (Nanjio Bunyiu's Catalogue, No.88 Taishoo Tripi.taka X,241) says: 'In the ocean there is a place called the Diamond Mountain...Here the Bodhisattva Fa-chi (Rise of the Law') continually preaches.' The passage was popularly applied by Korean monks to their Diamond Mountain, as also by the monks of the Kongoo-zan (kawachi Province, Japan) to theirs. 4 Tugh Tamur. 5 Bayan Khutukh, empress from 1335 till her death in 1365. 6 Aiyuchilidala(this was his Indo-Tibetan religious name as pronounced in Mongol; his Mongol name is unknown). In 1370, after the flight to Mongolia, his fater Toghon Tamur abdicated in his favour and he ruled over the Mongol remnants, assuming the Chinese title Chao Tsung. He is believed to have died in 1377. p.360 the law in the Yen Hua Pavilion. He said:((The existence of people devoting their minds to the study of Buddha's Law does much to promote the prosperity of the Empire.)) He also said: ((Ten thousand blessings! Blessings and Blessings! For he who of ten thousand lacks one, cannot be ruler of an Empire.)) He refused to accept the pearls and jade that they offered him. After the T'ien-li period (i.e. from the summer of 1330) he neither ate nor spoke for more than ten years. When he spoke again, he sometimes referred to himself as the Ruler of the Empress and Imperial concubines as his servants. Those who heard him do so were astonished but dared not ask what he meant. In the end the Emperor (Toghon Tamur) got wind of this, but he merely said:(( He is a Prince in the Law and has the right to aggrandize himself like this. It implies no reflection on me or my family.)) When the Chinese troops were about to rise(against the Mongols, he publicly addressed the crowd saying:((Do you know how many soldiers and horses we have? In such a place there are mustered so many thousand; in such a place, so many)), and so on. The priests in the temple where he lived were all Koreans. One day he suddenly said to them:((Why are you rebelling?)) They wanted to sound their gongs and go to the attack, but he checked them. Several days later the cavalry of the Liao-yang (Manchurian) Government reported that Korean troops had crossed the frontier. Great masses of people(1) had gathered together in the Capital. He was always saying to them: ((You will not be here long.)) And sure enough soon afterwards the Emperor (Toghon Tamur) was obliged to retire to the north, and Chinese troops entered the city, which was henceforward known as Pei-P'ing Fu. There was indeed some truth in the Master's predictions! The Master said that his great-grandfather was called Lion's Flank(2), his grandfather, Bushel Rice(3). Both were kings of Kapi- ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Mongols. 2 Si^mha-paar'sva. 3 Dro.nodana. P.361 lavastu. His father, named Full(1) was king of the country of Magadha. His mother was a princess of the country of Hsiang-chih (Kaa~ncipura). ((My two elder brother)), he said, ((were called 'Sriikarava and 'Sriimani. I myself was born in answer to a prayer offered by my parents to the God of Great Majestic Virtue in the Eastern Quartier(2). From my earliest years I delighted only in (food and drink) that was pure, and would not take(?) wine or garlic. At five I was given a teacher and studied both native books and the teachings of foreign lands. But I had only mastered these in a rough and general way when my lessons stopped. About this time my father fell ill and the doctors could do nothing for him. The diviners said ((If a son leaves the house, the king may recover.)) My father explained this to us three brothers, and I offered myself. He was delighted and calling me by my pet name said: ((Can it be that Rudraarthavat(3) is capable of such devotion?)) At first my mother strongly opposed it, on the ground that I was the youngest. But in the end, though it rent her heart, she agreed to part with me. My father at once recovered. At eight I completed my ordination {literally, ((completed my three garments))}and was sent to Naalandaa to study with the Master of Exposition, Vinayabhadra(4) (Chinese, Lu-hsien). Here I shaved my head, dyed my clothes(5) and received the five vows(6). I studied the Mahaapraj~naa. When I asked about Buddha, the Multitude of Living Creatures, the Void, the Three Worlds (Kaamadhaatu, Ruupadhaatu and Aruupadhaatu), the Master said: ((It is not true that they exist or that they do not exist. That is the real doctrine of ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Puur.na. 2 'Siva ? Certainly not the Vidhyaaraaja Da-wei-te who presides over the West, and would not, in any case, be called a sh^en, god. 3 Lou-ta-lo-to-p'o. 4 The name recalls that of the seventh century pilgrim Hsuan-tsang's teacher, 'Siilabhadra, who was also a professor at Naalandaa. The names of the Naalandaa abbots mentioned by Taaranaatha all end in -bhadra. 5 Novices wore white. 6 Possibly he had received five already and these were the other five, to make up the full Ten. P.362 Praj~naa. You had better go to the Master Samantaprabhaasa (Chinese, P'u-ming) in the country of La^nkaa (i.e. Ceylon) in Southern India. He lives on the Mountain 'Sriigiri (Chinese, Chi-hsiang, Auspicious). He will teach you the inner meaning of this doctrine.)) I was now nineteen. I set out all alone and did obeisance to my master (Samantaprabhaasa) in the Ting-yin-an (Summit Sound Cloister). He said: ((In coming here from Central India how many steps did you take?)) I was unable to answer, and retiring to a stone cave sat there for a good six months. I then received an illumination and tried to rise. But my legs stuck together and I could not. The king(1) of the country sent his doctor to me, who treated me with drugs and I recovered. I said to my master: ((Both legs were one step.))(2) He conferred on me his garment and bowl, and stroked my head (?) saying: ((Here is another young lion to take a step down the mountain. I have already had 243 pupils who have successfully got the Law at my hands. But on the Multitude of Living Beings they have none of them had great effect. It remains for you to propagate my teaching. May you prosper in your going.)) He gave me the name 'Suunyaadi' sya, in Chinese Chih-k'ung (Finger Pointing at the Void). I composed a gaathaa in which I thanked my teacher for his kindness and addressing the other pupils I said to them ((Advance and the Void opens wide; retreat and the ten thousand structures (dharmas) are submerged.)) Then I gave one great shout. On the way to my teacher, I first of all passed through the country of Lo-lo-hsu (Raadhaka i.e. Raadhapura in Bengal).Here I found someone explain- ing the Lotus Scripture. I talked with him and cleared up some of his difficulties. In the country of Danta (3) the men and women live promiscuously and without clothing. I showed them the Great Way. At Kaa~n- ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Parakkama-Baahu IV ? 2 Evidently this was the correct answer to Saman- prabhaasa's riddle; but the meaning is obscure. 3 Dantapura, the capital of Kalinga. P.363 cipura(1) (Chinese, Hsiang-chih) the king was delighted to see me, saying I was his nephew. He wanter me to stay with him; but I refused. An expositor of the Avata^nsaka Suutra was giving a public address on the twenty(2) sorts of Bodhicitta. I used the illustration of ((the one that is many and the many that are one.))(3) In the country of Kalinga on the shores of the sea is the Tortoise Peak Mountain. It is inhabited by Brahmins who say that by throwing oneself over the cliff which is 20,000 eubits high, one can be certain of being born again as a man or Devaraaja. I told them that true ascetism is a thing of the heart and has nothing to do with the body. I made them practise the method of the Six Paaramitaas and the Ten Stages (of Bodhisattvahood), and other practices. I performed my summer Retreat on Mt. Maariicii, and went on to La.^naa (Ceylon). After I parted with my teacher and went down from the mountain I was met halfway by the my merits. He asked me to expound the Law; but I merely composed a gaathaa in praise of his pagoda, and went on my way. In that land the ruler(5) is an infiedel, and knowing that my vows debarred me from violence and lechery, he ordered a dancing-girl to bathe with me in the same pool. I showed complete indifference to her presence, being no more affected than if I had been a corpse. The king sighed, saying ((This is certainly an unusual man.)) These infidels make a ((man of Mount Sumeru)) out of wood or stone. On his head and thighs they set the image of a mountain, before which they make libations of wine. The men and women have intercourse in front of it. This is called yin-yang wor- ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Conjeeveram, in reality further south than Kali^nga. 2 The 'two sorts' is the common category. 'Twenty' is probably a mistake for 'two'. 3 All the dharmas are merely expressions of one undifferentiated Absolute. They have no characteristics of their own nor any absolute position in time or space. Thus any one dharma is equal to all the dharmas, and all the dharmas to any one dharma. 4 A pagoda made out of one block of stone. 5 Northern Ceylon(?), which was at this time under the rule of invaders from S.India. P.364 ship ('Sakti-puujaa? ) .I set before them the prin- ciples of right-thinking and delusion concerning mankind and the gods, exhorting them to break with this unholy cult. The ruler of the country of Tso-li ( i.e. of the Cholas)(1) is a Buddhist. I addressed a gaathaa to him and he replied with one. I again gave him a gaathaa and he sent me a number of jewels. Among the gaathaas was one about the elephant-king passing through the eye of a needle. The Lion Country(Ceylon)possesses the Tathaagata's bowl,(2) Buddha's Foot-prints, and a magic bowl that when filled with rice can supply 10,000 monks. Buddha's Footprints sometimes give out a bright light. I did reverence to all these relies. In the country of To-lo-fu (Dvaaravatii).(3) there are both true believers and misguided people. I mounted the chair and delivered a discourse. There was a nun who silently accepted my teaching. In the country of Karana(4) too they are infidels. But the king was delighted to see me. I expounded to him the chapter about the ((initial stage of Mahe'svararaaja's conversion)) in the Ta Chuang-yen Kung-te Pao-wang Ching(5). ((So there is true doctrine to be found outside the Law as well as in,)) said the king.(6) The infidels tried to assassinate me and I was obliged to fly from the city at nightfall. A tiger was approaching. The man in attendance upon me knew this because he understood the language of birds. He therefore climbed a tree in order to be safe from the tiger. ((I wonder whether you)), I said to him, ((who are elever enough to understand the language of birds, also understand my teaching.)) He made no reply. I gave him a good thrashing ¢w twenty strokes of my staff, ¢w and he had an illumination. ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 What had formerly been the territory of the Cholas was at this time under the dominion of the Hoysalas. 2 It is curious that no mention is made of the much more famous Tooth Relic. 3 See above p.1. 4 See above p.2. 5 See above p.5. 6 By ((the Law)) he presumably means his own Hindu Law. P.365 In the country of Sindh (Chinese, Shen-t'ou) there is a vast expanse of flowing sands (desert). I did not know which way to go. I came upon a tree with fruit like peaches. I was very hungry and took two of them to eat. I had not finished eating them when the Air Spirit (Chinese, K'ung-shen) appeared in a great hall suspended in space. An old man occupying the main seat said: ((Why does not this thief do obeisance to me?)) I said: ((I am a follower of Buddha. Why should I do obeisance to you?)) The old man abused me saying that if I was really a follower of Bouddha I had no business to be stealing fruit. I said ((The flames of hunger pressed hard upon me.)) The old man said:((To take what one is not given is stealing. If I let you go, it is because I am a good spirit who protects observers of the Monastic Rules.)) He made me shut my eyes, and in a moment I found myself at the far side (of the desert). I began to boil myself some hot water on a fallen tree; but discovered that it (the fallen tree) was a python! In the country of Ti-li-lo-ern (1), a woman wanted to have inter-course with me. I was hungry, but knew that if I took food from her I should have to yield to her(?). However, I asked whether a good horse could be obtained. She answered sensibly, and I continued on horseback. It was indeed a splendid horse and I flew to the frontier. But suddenly a man came and bound me, and took me away too look after his sheep. Heavy snow began to fall, but I got into a cave and spent seven days and nights in samadhi, during which time a bright light shone out of the cave. The people cleared away the stone and on entering the cave were delighted ot see me sitting cross-legged. They offered me clothes and treasure; but I refused to accept anything. The hearts of both the men and women were enlightened, and they put me on to my right road. For a long while I met no-one at all. But suddenly I came upon people on the road, and was glad indeed to see them. They hurried me into the presence of their king and kneeling before him said:((The drought ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 This seems to represent a Sanskrit Tridhaara 'place of the Three Streams'; perhaps somewhere in the neighbourhood of the modern Multaan. P.366 from which we are suffering is certainly due to this monster. May if please you that he be slaughtered.)) The king said: ((Leave him alone for three days. If by then it hasn't rained, there will still be time to slay him.)) I burnt incense and recited a single incantation which at once produced a heavy fall of rain that lasted for three days. In the country of Ts'o-ling-t'o(Jaalandhara) (1) there is a crazy priest. When he sees anyone coming, he arranges three rows of priest. When he sees anyone coming, he arranges three rows of bulls' skulls on the ground and spreads a mass of rushes over them. Then he sits in silence. But, at first sight of me, he set it on fire to and shrieked: ((The mountains, the rives and the great earth are but a scrap.)) The priest Tao-yen {((Rock of the Way))} lives on the shores of Lake Anavatapta(2) (Chinese, A-nou Ch'ih). He has a small shelter made of grass. If anyone comes, he burns it, screaming ((Help! Fire!)) When I arrived, he at once screamed ((Help! Fire!)) and kicked over his water-pot. He said he was sorry I had not come long ago. In the country of Mo-lo-so {(( Malasa))or the like }there are some fervent Buddhists; but there are also bad people mixed among them. I delivered a discourse hoping to break them of their bad views, and all the heretics became orthodox. East of the city, the Upaadhyaaya Pao {((Treasure))} lives in a hole which he has dug for himself. He cultivates the ground all round his hole. In it he keeps a vessel filled with greens. If anyone comes, he goes on gardening and will not utter a word. But when I came down into his hole hoping for some greens, he shrieked ((Greens growing! Greens growing!)) In the city there is a man who weaves fine silks. If anyone comes ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Famous in Buddhist history as the scene of Kanishka's Council. Twice visited by the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang, c. 634 A.D. In the Punjab, near the borders of Cashmire. 2 Properly speaking, this is the legendary lake at the centre of our universe. Tradition placed it north of the Great Snow Mountains. It is commonly identified with Lake Manasarowar. P.367 he does not speak, and what he weaves, he never removes(1) (from the loom). I ripped it across with a knife. The man said ((There goes the work of many years!)) A priest of Anavatapta called Sheng-i lives in a cave. When he sees anyone coming he smears his face with soot and comes out and dances. Then he goes back to his cave. I shouted a gaathaa at him. A priest of Ts'ao-so (Sausalya(2))called Na-ta has lived at the side of the road for several years. To every person who approaches (the city) he says ((Welcome! ) ) and to everyone who is leaving ((Goodbye)). I gave him three strokes with my staff and he replied with a blow of the fist. In the country of Ti-li-hou-ti(3) the doctrine of the Brahmins flourishes and I avoided going that way. In the country of T'ing-ch'u-li(4) both the true and the false are practised. I met robbers who stripped me naked. But the king of Ni-ch'ieh-lo (Nikala(5)) sent to meet me, brought me to his palace, and asked me to expound the Law. A certain Pao-fent {((Precious Peak))}was discoursing on the scriptures. I joined in and we took turns at preaching and expounding. After travelling to the east for several days I came to a high mountain, called the Iron Mountain. On it there is no soil, stones, plants or trees. When the sun shines on it in the morning, its rays burn like fire. For this reason the place is also called Fire-blaze (Sikkim?(6)). After seven or eight days I was able to get to the top of the mountains. There are here seventeen of eighteen states (small countries )almost touching the sky. To the north (the mountains) stretch I do not know how many thousand or ten thousand leagues. to the east is the source ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 But goes on weaving indefinitely. 2 Suggested in a footnote of the Taishoo Tripi.taka. But, so far as I know, no such place is known. 3 The Tripi.taka suggests 'Tirhut'. 4 Perhaps Tehri, now a native state in the Himaal- ayas, adjoining Tibet, is meant. 5 Is Nepal meant? 6 But there are fire-legends connected with Cash- mire as well as Sikkim. P.368 of the river(of the Indus?).Between two peaks that soar aloft one crosses on a plank bridge. Here the ice and snow never melt. These are called the Snow Mountains. Alone and in great extremities of hunger, having subsisted merely on wild fruits, I reached the borders of Tiber (Hsi-fan). My mission was to the Middle Kingdom,and when in Tibet I met the North Indian (monk?)Mahaapa.n.dita. I agreed to accompany him to Peking. After a short stay(1) I went off to the west to the headquarters of the Prince of An-hsi (Kuchaa, in Turkestan)(2) and had an audience with the Prince, who was called Fu-k'o-t'i. He wanted me to stay with him and teach him the Law, but I had set my heart on going about and could not consent to be tied. He said to me ((The Multitude of Living Beings have been going on continually piling up evil Karma. But we(3) are able by a single spell (mantra)to put a man beyond re-incarnation and bring him the bliss of Heaven.)) I said he was talking nonsense.Murder,for example, still remains murder(4). Life and death are mutually opposed. Such indeed, I told him, is the origin of all pain. He said I was a heretic; but I replied that compassion was true Buddhism, and its opposite, heresy. He tried to make me accept presents, but I refused. In the town of Mo-t'i-yeh (Matiya or the like)in Hsi-fan( Ti-bet )I could have converted the people, but the mantra-massters poisoned me by putting something in my tea. At this moment an official arrived from Peking and asked me to go back with him. But ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 The sentence reads as though `a short stay at Peking' were meant. This of course is not possible. 2 It seems certain that this Fu-k'o-t'i is iden- tical with Ulu-tamur (son fo Andan-bukha, son of Ananda, son of Monghola, son of Khubilai Khan)who was created Prince of An-hsi in 1323, but was accused of complicity in the assassination of the Emperor Khoghan (Ying Tsung) and banished to Yun-nan in the early weeks of 1324. As may be judged from dates of the subsequent narrative, Dhyaanabhadra probably passed through Tibet c. 1324-5. 3 i.e. the Tantric School. 4 The bad karma that it creates cannot be removed by spells. P.369 I wanted to share my mission with the Master Pa.n.dita, and did not accept the offer. I left the place,and at Katan (Gadan or the like) the sorcerers tried to kill me, so that I was obliged to leave. At the city of Hsia(1) (crayfish) the ruler was delighted to see me; but the heretics were jealous and knocked out one of my teeth. I wanted to leave by the manin road in the ordinary way. But had I done so the hereties would certainly have killed me, and the ruler gave me an escort as far as Shu(2). Here I did homage to a huge image of Samantabhadra and sat in contermplation(ch'an) for three years. Round the Big Poisonous River (Ta-tu Ho)(3) there were thieves everywhere. Again I was stripped naked, and fled to the territory of the Lolos(4). Here a priest gave me meditation-garment and a woman gave me a small coat. I was obliged to live on the offerings of donors. A priest with whom I was eating had got hold of a goose offered [in accordance with the custom of] releasing live things. He wanted to have it cooked and eat it. I beat his wife (5) till she howled. The priest was angry and chased me away. I heard that a local official had moulded an image of me and that when there was drought or illness his prayers to this image were always answered. The official at the Kin-sha River(6)Barrier,seeing me in a woman's coat and with long hair, was astonished and asked what I was. I tried to explain; but he could not understand what I said. I then wrote in western (Indian) letters, but he could not read it, and detained me there. At evening I hid in a crevice of the rocks and lay there. Soon, before anyone knew what had happened, I was on the far shore. The ferryman was lost in admiration and did obeisance before me. ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Somewhere near the modern Chando in the Tibetan province of Kham? 2 Presumably Ch'eng-tu, the capital of Ssu-ch'uan, is meant. 3 Probably the Ta-tu ('Big Ford'), an affluent of the Min, is meant. 4 Aboriginces who are still settled S. W. of Ch'eng-tu. 5 Among priests of the Tibetan unreformed seet (Read Hat) celibacy is still not universal. 6 The upper Yangtze. P.370 On arriving near Yunnan City(1) went up to a room above the gate of a temple to the town and entered samaadhi. The priests of the temple asked me to go into the city, and I went to the Tsu-pien Ssu ('Patriarch Chang Temple'), where I sat under an eleococca tree. It rained in the night; but my coat dit not get wet. I went to the provincial headquarters and prayed for better weather. My prayer was answered. I then settled in the Hsia-lung-ch'uan Ssu ('Summer Dragon Spring Temple') , and wrote out the Praj~naapaaramataa Suutra in Sanskrit. The people were short of water. I ordered the dragon to make the spring work, and thus saved the people. In Ta-li(2)I gave up all pleasant-tasting foods and lived on nine walnuts a day. The Golden Teeth (3), Wu-ch'e and Wu-meng form one aboriginal tribe. They did reverence to me and made me their master. They moulded a statue of me and worshipped it. I was told that a rascal took the Dhyaana-staff of this statue and struck the figure to the ground. But he was unable to raise my statue and take it away. He then repented of his act and put the statue up again. At Anning-chou(4) a priest asked me how it was that when the Tripi.taka (Buddhist scriptures) first entered China people bowed their heads and were at once ready to accept them. By that time I understood the language of Yunnan and answered: ((You cannot expect things te remain always the same. Religious and secular life are bound to go their own ways.)) He asked me to explain to him the monastic rules and suutras, and [to show that he was in earnest] burnt his head and arm. The officials and people all did this. On the Chung-ch'ing(5) circuit all the monasteries asked me to preach the Law. I conducted five assemblies. The Prince(6) did reverence to me and took ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Due south of the point where the traveller must have crossed the Kin-sha. 2 He is now making a detour to the west. 3 The Zardandan of Marco Polo. 4 Near Yunnan Fu. 5 A circuit in Yunnan. 6 Not identified. P.371 me as his teacher. The Lolos knew nothing either of Buddha or the clergy. But on my arrival their hearts were always awakened(1), and even the birds flying in the air were heard to be uttering Buddhas's name. At Kuei-chou(2) the Commander-in-chief and his subordinates all received the Rules. The Miao-man, the Yao-t'ung, the Ch'ing, the Hung['Blue and Red'], the Hua-chu['Flower Bamboo'], the Ta-ya ['Knock-out Tooth'],the ko-lao ¢w in fact, all the cave-dwelling aborigines¢wcame to me with offerings of rare salads and asked to receive the Rules. At Chen-yuan Fu (3) there is a temple (miao) where the spirit of Prince Ma(4) is worshipped. Everyone crossing the river at this point has to make an offering of meat, otherwise his boat comes to harm. I was able by a single shout a procure a passage for the boats. On the Ch'ang-te (5) road I did reverence to the two patriarchs Ching-kang ('Mirror Diamond') and Po-lu ('White Deer'). There is an image of Kuan-yin moulded by himself which works many marvels at the Lake of Tung-t'ing. It can bring wind and rain. When I was there, it was causing wind and huge waves rose. I discoursed on the Three Refuges [in Buddha, the Law and the Church], speaking in Sanskrit and Chinese. Previously people used to make offerings [to this image] of rope shoes. But by next morning the shoes were always broken to bits. Afterwards [after my visti?] they gave up these offerings and only offered prayers. The Counsellor of the Government of Hu-kuang (6) wanted to drive me away(7); but I represented that I had come all the way ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Technically, 'They acquired Bodhicitta'. 2 Capital of the Chinese province of that name. 3 In Kuei-chou province. 4 Ma Yuan of the Han dynasty, the `Wave-subduer', who is worshipped as a water-god in southern China. 5 In Hunan. 6 The provinces of Hunan, Hupeh, Kuang-tung and Kuang-hsi. 7 Prophecies were current at the time that the Bodhisattva Maitreya was about to descend from Heaven and turn out the Mongols; this may have made the authorities nervous of such a figure as Dhyaanabhadra. P.372 from India to interview the Emperor and propagate the True Law. Did he, I asked, not want me to pray for the Emperor's long life? I visited the Tung-lin Ssu('Eastern Forest Temple') on Lu-shan, where I saw the soaring Relie Pagoda (literally, 'previous body pagoda'), in which the bones are still undecayed(1). In Huai-hsi(2), I was asked many questions about the meaning of Prajnaa. I replied ((The Three States of Mind(3) cannot be got [for asking].)) At Yang-chou the Prince took me in charge and brought me by boat to the Capital. The wife of the Chancellor of the Metropolitan Government, a member of the Ch'ang family, was a native of Korea. She asked me to hold an Ordination in the Ch'ung-jen Temple(4). When this was over, I proceeded to Luanching [Shang-tu; Cole-ridge's Xanadu] and resided there during the period T'ai-ting (1324-1327).' This concludes Dhyaanabhadra's narrative. Li Se continues: Ah me, what wanderings! The master was indeed a marvellous man! After the period T'ien-li (1328) he discarded priestly dress. The wife of his Excellency....Chaghan Tamur(5) was a member of the Chin family, and she too was a Korean. She became a disciple of the Master's and took her vows. She bought a house in Ch'eng-ch'ing Li [a district of Peking?] and turned it into a Buddhist temple, inviting the Master to reside there. On the inscription-board he wrote 'Source of the Law'. What he meant was that all the rivers in the Empire run from west to east, as his own life-course had run. His grizzled hair and white beard gave him a god- like air [His skin?] was dark and lustrous. In clothing and diet he was very ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Relics of Buddha preserved in the Iron Pagoda. 2 The district west of the river Huai. 3 The Direct Mind, which instinctively perceives the truth, the Profound Mind, which has a passion for knowledge, and the Compassionate Mind, which longs to save the world from its miseries. 4 In Peking? 5 One of the outstanding figures in the closing years of the Mongol dynasty. P.373 lavish(1). His bearing was majestic and inspired awe in all who beheld him. In the 23rd year of Chih-eheng (1363) a chamber- lain arrived from Court in the winter. The Master said to him 'Ask your lord for me whether I may go before the close of my days'(2). The Master of the Wardrobe Sukho Tamur brought back an Imperial Order that he was to stay, and he remained where he was all the winter. The Master further said: ((My image is to be put up in the T'ien-shou Ssu.)) This year on the 20th day of the eleventh month (December 26) he died in the Kuei-hua Cell. It was he who had built it and given it its name. By order of the Emperor (Toghon Tamur; Chiness title, Shun Ti) all the officials of the Metropolitan seat of Government attendedhis funeral in the T'ien-shou Ssu. Next year the Censor Toghan Tamur(3) and the Minister of State Bai Tamur(4) brought incense which they mixed with clay, and using water scented with plum and cassia tree they moulded the mass into flesh for his body(5). In the autumn of the year mou-shen (1368),when the troops(6) were approaching the city, the relics (Jhaapita) were divided into four parts. [The priests] Ta-hsuan, Ch'ing-hui. and Fa-ming, and the nei-cheng (eunuch?) Chang Lu-chi each got a share and went off with it. Ta-hsuan embarked on the sea and Ch'mg-hui gave his portion to Ta-jui. Both Ta-jui and Ta-hsuan returned to the East (i.e.to Korea). In the year jen-tzu (1372) on the 16th day of the 9th month by the Prince's orders a shrine [to contain these relics] was set up at the Kuei-yen Ssu. Before being placed in the shrine the bones ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 One would have expected some such word as `mode- rate'. There is probably a misprint. 2 The construction is obscure. 3 Made Censor in 1364, but executed in 1365. 4 His biography is in the Hsin Pien Yuan Shih ch. 199. 5 For this practics see Yetts, Journal of the R. Asiatic Society, July 1911, pp.669-725. 6 The Chinese troops who drove the Mongols out of Peking in this year. P.374 were washed clean and several grains of 'sariira (magical relics) were obtained. The Master brought with him from India a copy of the Ma~nju'srii No-birth Rules Suutra (Wen-chu-shih- li Wu-sheng ching ching) in two rolls, at the beginning of which the Chancellor Wei Ta-p'u(1) wrote a preface; and a copy of the Yuan-chio Ching 'Suutra of Complete Apprehension'(2) with a note at the end written by the Imperial Secretary Ou-yang(3) . He wrote a considerable number of gaathaa, which have been collected elsewhere and are in circulation. The Yunnan [priest] Wu-wu('Perceiver of the Void') is esteemed for his eloquence. At the age of seven he attached himself to the Master and became a priest. At that time the Master had already completed a full cycle of years(4). Now Wu-wu was 75 when Master died(5). The priest Jen-chieh of Chi-wen-chiang (6) says that among [the Master's] disciples Ta-yun, who was formerly head of the Lin-kuan Ssu, set himself to works of piety with an energy that continually increased, and the disciple Ta-jui embarked on a hazardous journey of several thousand leagues in order to bring the Master's bones, prepared to sacrifice his life in the achievement of this purpose. One of Lan-weng's disciples says: 'Lan-weng was the Master's teacher (pupil?); therefore the Master is my grandfater [in the Law]'. This disciple of Lan-weg, together with the master's disciple Miaotsang, abbess of Ching-yeh Yuan, bought some swallow-stone(7) and set it up on the cliff near the Kuei-yen Ssu, so high that ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 Wei Su, part author of the Ming shih, Born 1295; died in exile at Kha-rakhojo in 1372. Works published under the title Wei Hsuch-shih Chi. 2 Bunyu Nanjio's Catalogue, No.429. 3 Ou-yang Hsuan.Born 1274 or 5; died early in 1358. Author of the Kuei Chai Chi, reprinted in the Ssu Pu Pu Ts'ung K'an. 4 Sixty years. 5 It appears to be suggested that Dhyaanabhardra, being 53 years older than Wu-wu, was 128 (127 in our reckoning) when he died. This need not be taken too seriously. 6 In Korea? 7 A stone resembling jade, but not so precious. P.375 it brushed(?) the Hosts of Heaven. Cannot these be called filial sons and obedient grandehildren? News of all this reached the Court (1) and by Im- perial Command, I, the minister Li Se, composed a verse-inscription, which was written out by the Minister Han Hsiu, while the minister Chung-ho designed a tablet in seal-character. I, the Minister Se, now say: The Master's relics were divided into four portions, but it is uncertain whether shrines were set up to him in other places [as well as the Kuei-yen Ssu]. It was therefore difficult to find anyone from whom to obtain an inscription setting out the facts of his life. Moreover it is not clear whether the Master Chih-k'ung(20 can really be thought of as dwelling here, or elsewhere. But ought not his relics to be considered simply like a grasshopper's discarded shell, and disregarded? Or that his disciples might have a chance of displaying their gratitude was it right that an effort should be made, despite the circumstances? These questions weighed heavily upon me. But in deference to the Imperial Command I composed the following verse-inscription: The Master's tracks start in the Western Land; He was King Puur.na's son and the spiritual successor of Samanta-prabhaasa. In the Upper Capital he met with recognition; The moment was favourable to his task. His audience in the Yen-hua Pavilion Was in the nick of time(3). Looking back on his wanderings He could say there was not a country he had not explored, Passing through strange lands as easily as water down tiles, Or a stone through the waters of a pond. In the period T'ien-li the Emperor's priests Brushed him with their hate. But he went on wearing the same raiment, ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 The Mongol Court at Karakorum? 2 Dhyaanabhadra. 3 Before the troubles that ended in the fall of the Mongols. P.376 And his fame in religion continued to soar. His mad sayings and wild jibes A man of K'uang(1) could understand. He told of armies before blood was shed As easily as though sorting black from white¢w And the power to foretell the future Is surely the essence of religious power? True, he met with incredulity and slander; But his heart was unmoved. His relics shone with such a splendour That all beholders gasped in awe. Who can say that 'man's nature Is incapable of achieving extremes?'(2) Surveying this Juniper Rock Temple We have set up a monument and carved words upon it. Let no-one dare to tamper with it, But let it rather be guarded here forever. Poem by a disciple of Dhyaanabhadra,written on visit ing the place: The study of the supernatural transcends worldly teachings And brings comfort, as a banquet to a starving man. In conversation over country fruits there is some- thing left to chew; But the courtier's cup, when the Emperor has drunk, is spilled. simple words can convey infinite meaning; But the highest truths cannot be concretely expressed. The doings of a holy man who would best record? To the hermit or herdsman should be entrusted the making of such an inscription(3). ¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w¢w 1 i.e.he was more fortunate than Confucius,who was badly received when passing through K'uang (Analects IX. 5). The Man of K'uang is here the Emperor. 2 Evidently a quotation; but I cannot trace it. 3 i.e. an inscription recording Dhyaanabhadra's life.