從上座部佛教的觀點探討毗婆奢那

（內觀）禪法

伊利諾大學香檳校區東亞系 釋自拙

中華佛學研究  第七期

Chung-Hwa Buddhist Studies  n.7

       中華佛學研究所      

Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies

提要

就修學證道的觀點而言，毗婆奢那（內觀）的禪修法和奢摩他（止）的禪修法，有否必然的關係呢？行者是否可以不靠這兩種禪法，單以理性思考、辯證和分析推理的方式，除去所有的煩惱而證得涅槃呢？本文就是從南傳佛教的觀點來探討上述的問題。

由於這些問題涉及到vipassanā及vipassanā bhāvanā（毗婆奢那禪修／內觀禪修）等內涵，本文將先探討這些用語所談的本質、特色及具體修法。接著，才探討毗婆奢那禪修法和奢摩他的禪修法間的關係。

本文所採用的方式不只是從文字、經典的角度來看這些問題，也從實修的觀點來探討這些問題。因此，本文所用的資料，除了南傳的四部尼柯耶等經典外，也參考《清淨道論》、南傳《解脫道論》以及近代南傳修學有成的幾位禪師的觀點。

關鍵詞：1.毗婆奢那（內觀）　2. 毗婆奢那禪修法（內觀禪修法）3.奢摩他　4.關係　5.理性思考

An Examination ofVipassanā (Insight) Meditation
from a Theravāda Perspective

Shih Zizhuo

Universityof Illinois at Urbana and Champain,

Departmentof East Asia Languages and Cultures

Summary

What is the relationship betweeninsight meditation (vipassanāmeditation) and serenity/ calm meditation (samatha meditation) in terms ofattaining enlightenment?  Is thereany way, which is purely intellectual approach, could lead to liberation fromall the defilements requiring not help at all of meditation?  This essay attempts to investigate theaforementioned issues posed by some articles which propose that vipassanā is a kind of intellectualactivity and it could lead to the final goal, nibbanā, without the help of meditation.

Since this issue is caused by theterm “vipassanā” (insight),this essay, firstly, will concentrate on examining the nature, characteristicsand the practice of vipassanāas well as a very similar term “vipassanā bhāvanā”(the cultivation of insight).  Thengoes further to investigate the relationship between vipassanā and samatha meditation.

The approach taken by this essayis not only consulting the resources of Nikāyas, Paṭisambhidāmagga, and Visuddhimagga, butalso takes the contemporary works of some Theravāda masters into account.

Key words:   1. vipassanā (insight)　2. vipassanā bhāvanā (the cultivation of insight)　3.samatha (calm)　4. relationship and intellectualactivity

【Contents】

1. Introduction

In the Pāli Canon, the methods ofmeditation taught by the Buddha consist of two systems, that is, thedevelopment of serenity or calm (samatha) and the development of insight (vipassanā).^[1]　However, there are some controversial issues regarding serenitymeditation and insight meditation for both contemporary scholarship andpractitioners of Theravāda Buddhism. First of all, there is a debate concerning which technique is thecrucial practice in order to attain nibbāna.  On the one hand, Winston King suggested that, as regardstechniques for achieving nibbāna in the practice of Theravāda Buddhism, insight(vipassanā) meditation is themost direct and exclusive way to attain the final goal.^[2]　On the other hand, Johannes Bronkhorst (1993) argued that thedevelopment of serenity (samatha) is the innovative and distinguishingmeditation in early Buddhism.  Thesecond issue instead of emphasizing the tension between practice of calm andpractice of insight, Lance Cousins pointed out that the important point is howmuch calm and insight should be developed at the different stages of the path.^[3]　The third issue is whether insight (vipassanā) meditation bears a relationship to calm meditation asfar as attaining enlightenment is concerned.^[4]　 For instance, Vetter suggested that there is a “Discriminatinginsight” (Pāli: vipassanā / Sanskrit: vipaśyanā) which“conquering desire, other cankers and, thereby, ending rebirth” requires nomeditation.^[5]　 Yet, Gombrich argued that, even though there are some suttas showingthat practitioners can attain enlightenment without meditation, the statementmay have been amended by monastic compilers.^[6]

The third issue is the mostsignificant of all because it includes the main point of the first two issues,that is, what is the real relationship between serenity meditation and insightmeditation and to what extent they should be developed in terms of obtainingliberation.  The purpose of thisessay, therefore, is firstly focus on clarifying vipassanā, and vipassanā meditation.  Then, itgoes on investigating into the relationship between vipassanā and samatha (clam meditation) in consideration ofattaining enlightenment.  Theapproach employed in this essay will not only use the literature, but also takethe actual practice into account.

The primary sources employed inthis essay are the Pāli suttas, which include the Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, SaṃyuttaNikāya, Aṅguttara Nikāya, and the Paṭisambhidāmagga. ^[7]　The second resources include:the Visuddhimagga, the mostinfluential work of Buddhaghosa, and some of the contemporary works ofTheravādin masters and scholars.

2. What is vipassanā

In this section, this essay willdiscuss the confusion of vipassanā and vipassanā meditation,and continues further to probe whether insight (vipassanā) is the same as insight meditation (vipassanā meditation).  In orderto avoid confusion, hereafter this essay will employ the word “vipassanā” instead of using thetranslation “insight”, and use the term “vipassanāmeditation” or “the cultivation of vipassanā”rather than the rendering of “insight meditation”.

2.1  Theconfusion among vipassanā, paññā and vipassanā meditation

According to the ways in whichthe notion of vipñassanā is used by some scholars, there is a confusionamong vipassanā (vipaśyanā), paññā (prajñā),and vipassanā meditation (vipaśyanā meditation).  As Rupert Gethin (1988:198-201) haspointed out, a number of scholars, such as De La Vallee Poussin, Frauwallner,Schmithausen, Vetter, Griffiths, and Gombrich,^[8]　 partly assume that the nature of vipassanā meditationis “a rather intellectual and rational conception”.^[9]　 The fact that Poussin interprets the notion of vipassanā as an intellectual achievement can be discerned in the followingstatement: “one may discriminate in the Buddhist sources, both ancient andscholastic, between two opposed theories…… the theory of prajñā (or vipaśyanā) which makes salvation a purely or mainly intellectualachievement, and the theory which makes salvation the goal of ascetic andecstatic disciplines.”^[10]　 Vetter (1988:35) is certainly sympathetic to Poussin when he says:“discriminating insight (paññā orprajñā) is knowing that things we normally consider to be the self or belongingto the self cannot be or belong to the self if this self is conceived of as notsuffering.  To facilitate this‘disidentification’ the main object of false identification, the human person,is divided into constituents or components; each part is examined as to whetherit can be the self and judged as not being the self”.  In addition, he also denies that discriminative insight (vipassanā) bears any connection withserenity meditation.^[11]

The previous information showsthree problematic issues: (1)whether paññā is the same as vipassanā;(2) whether vipassanā (or paññā; insight ) is the same as vipassanā meditation or the cultivation of insight (vipassanā bhāvanā); (3) whether the achievementof insight (vipassanā) ismerely carried out by intellectual activity.  In the following passage, this essay will clarify thesethree issues in turn.

2.2  Therelationship between paññā and vipassanā

Poussin, and Gombrich pointed outthat, basically, paññā has the same meaning as vipassanā, yet they used different words to translate paññā (prajñā) and vipassanā (vipaśyanā).  Poussin translated vipassanā (vipaśyanā) as“contemplation” and paññā  (prajñā) as “discrimination betweenthings”;^[12]　 while Gombrich translated paññā as “insight” and vipassanā (vipaśyanā) as“intuition”.^[13]　 Although Poussin translated these two words into different Englishterms, he put both of them in the same scale and said that they refer to thesame intellectual means of spiritual liberation.^[14]　Similarly, Gombrich also agreed that these two words basically havethe same meaning, though they were employed in different contexts as technicalterms.^[15]　 Although Vetter did not explicitly make this point in his book, The Ideas and Meditative Practices of EarlyBuddhism, his translation of paññā, as “discriminating insight”, doessuggest that he shares a similar translation with what Poussin rendered theword “vipassanā”.  Moreover, the Pāli suttas, MN22 and MN 74,^[16]　 the main resources employed by him, are related to the techniques ofvipassanā meditation as far as their essential practices shown by these two suttas are concerned.^[17]

Therefore, it may be suggestedthat the issue discussed by the above scholars is “something about vipassanā”.  The reason for using “something about vipassanā” instead of “vipassanā meditation” (vipassanā bhāvanā) is that there appears to be a confusion among vipassanā, paññā, and vipassanā meditation.

Since the clarification of therelationship between paññā and vipassanā requires more detailed investigation on the relationship of vipassanā and vipassanā meditation, this essay will focus ondiscussing the later relationship mainly, and mentions the relationship of vipassanā and paññā subordinarily. Here we accept the scholarly consensus, i.e. vipassanā has the samebasic meaning as paññā provisionally, and go further to conclude that therelation between paññā and vipassanā is that paññā includes vipassanā, namely vipassanā is a sort of paññā.

2.3  Vipassanāand vipassanā meditation

As we can see in section 2.2, thenotion of vipassanā has been confused with the notion of vipassanā meditation.  Forinstance, when the scholar mean to say some kind of vipassanā (insight) orpaññā (wisdom), they talks about how to practice in order to cultivate vipassanā, which actually, is “vipassanā meditation”.^[18]

In order to clarify thedifferences between vipassanā and vipassanā meditation,it is helpful to define the exact meanings of these words and to consult thePāli canon.  According to the Pāli-English Dictionary, the word vipassanā refers to the inward vision, insight, intuition or introspection.^[19]　It derives from the verb vi-passati. “Vi” is a prefix and refers toexpansion in variety or in detail, and passatmeans “to see”.  Hence, vipassanā, the noun form of vi-passati, can mean “seeing an object in detailor “seeing an object in many ways” or “seeing or penetrating an objectthoroughly”.^[20]　 Furthermore, there is a deeper meaning when this word is employed ina more technical sense. Buddhaghosa, the most influential commentator of Theravāda Buddhism,defined vipassanā as that which “penetrated into dharmasas they are in themselves, and destroys the darkness of delusion, which coversup the own-being of dharmas”.^[21]　 The Buddhist Dictionaryalso goes further to suggest that vipassanā is “the intuitive light flashing forthand exposing the truth of the impermanency, misery, and impersonality of allcorporeal and mental phenomena of existence.”^[22]　Here we find that vipassanā cultivates the realisation of thethreefold nature of conditioned existence (lakkhaṇa)_──impermanence, suffering and non-self.

The definitions mentioned abovecan be found in some Pāli suttas as well. In Pāli Agantukā sutta, the calm (samatha) and insight (vipassanā) are defined as follows:

……And what, monks, are the states (dhammā) thatare to be cultivated (bhāvetabbā) by full comprehension (abhiññā)?  They are calm (samatha) and insight(vipassanā).^[23]

A Similar notion can be found in MN73 as well:

These suttas show threesignificant points relevant to vipassanā.  (1) Vipassanā is cultivated (bhāvetabbā) by full comprehension(abhiññā).  (2) The word“cultivate” (bhāveti) is applied to depict the development of vipassanā meditation. (3) When vipassanā and calm are cultivated(bhāvitā), they will penetrate many things.  Here let us investigate briefly bhāvet” and abhiññā first.

In the text the words bhāvatabbā,bhāvehi and bhāvitā are derived fromthe verb bhāveti.^[25]　In a number of Pāli suttas,^[26]　when the practice of vipassanā meditation is mentioned, words derivedfrom bhāveti are always employed. The term bhāveti means“practise” or “cultivate”.^[27]　 Vajirañāṇa Mahāthera pointed out that this isdifferent from jhāyat” (meditate). The former is applied to mean any form of mental development, while thelatter refers to “thinking upon a mental object or holding a mental image takenfrom an external object”.  Inaddition, Buddhaghosa pointed out that the word bhāveti derives from the root bhū, which means “to be” or “tobecome”.^[28]　 “To be” indicating a quality or a state while “to become” refers to“come to be” or “grow to be” which implies that it develops something graduallyor makes something happen gradually. Therefore, Vajirañāṇa suggested that although the word has various meanings (such as“developing”, “cultivating”, “reflection”, “meditation”, and “producing”), itis better to translate bhāvet into “practice” and “cultivation” because theword bhāvanā, the noun formedfrom bhāveti, refers to the accumulationof all good qualities within oneself, to become apt and fit for the attainmentof nibbāna.^[29]　 This suggestion is that vipassanāis a sort of intuition which everyone is endowed with, nevertheless, itrequires the practitioner to cultivate it and bring it out. 

And yet what sort of quality is vipassanā?  This question brings our attention to another significantterm: abhiññā or full comprehension. According to the Pāli-English Dictionary,^[30]　 Abhiññā refers to certain conditions conducive to the acquisition ofcalmness, special knowledge, special wisdom and nibbāna.

Abhiññā is derived from the verb,jānāti, which means to know, to have or gain knowledge, to experience, to beaware of or to find out.^[31]　 That is, abhiññā is a special knowledge obtained through experienceand awareness.  The verysignificant words which we should pay attention to are “experience” and“awareness”.　These two words suggest that vipassanā is cultivated by being aware of livingactivity (experience) rather than thinking barely or working on abstract ideas,such as speculation, assumption and the like.  The statement can be supported by the Pāli-English Dictionary.  Inthe explanation of abhiññā the dictionary says that “wrong-doing, priestlysuperstitions and vain speculation do not conduce to abhiññā”.^[32]

Therefore, it may be concludedthat vipassanā is an intuitiveinsight which can be brought out by means of meditation and when it becomesmature and powerful enough, it becomes a special wisdom (paññā) which isconducive to attaining enlightenment. However, vipassanā meditationrefers to the technique of the cultivation of vipassanā or the process of bringing out the power of intuitive vipassanā.  Thus, the word shares similar meaning with paññā is“vipassanā” rather than “vipassanāmeditation”.

In the following section, thisessay will go further to probe into the characteristics of vipassanā to see what is itsrelationship to paññā, whether vipassanāis simply a sort of intellectual activity.

2.4  Thecharacteristics of vipassanā

2.4.1 The function of vipassanā

Many suttas which mention vipassanā usually show that thefunction of vipassanā is toextinguish greed, hatred and ignorance. In other words, the suttas point out that the nature of vipassanā is supramundane.  This notion can be found in SaṃyuttaNikāya:

In the first sutta, the term“Uncompounded”, according to the same sutta, refers to the destruction ofgreed, hatred and ignorance.  Sincethese three mental illnesses are the root of all mental intoxicants, to destroythese three mental illnesses means to eradicate all defilements.  In addition, the second sutta goesfurther to distinguish the different kinds of abandonment found in samatha and vipassanā, that is, samathahelps to get rid of lust and makes the practitioner concentrate his mind, whilevipassanā uproots ignorance and frees the practitioner from saṃsāra, the transmigration of rebirth.^[35]　This information suggests that both the function and the nature of vipassanā are different from the intellect which ordinary people are endowedwith.  The detailed discussion ofthis issue can be seen in Visuddhimagga:

2.4.2 The state of vipassanā

The aforementioned informationsuggests that the most essential difference between vipassanā and worldlyperception and consciousness is that the former can penetrate into thethreefold fundamental characteristics (lakkhaṇa) of everything, and leads toliberation while the latter two cannot. This statement is supported by Majjhima Nikāya 73, and the Paṭisambhidāmagga,^[37]　and can also be ascertained inthe teachings of two contemporary influential meditation masters of Thailand:Acharn Chah and Buddhadāsa.

According to Majjhima Nikāya 73,^[38]　 when the practitioner’s vipassanā is cultivated, he or she can penetrateinto the impermanence of the five aggregates (khandas), which are physicalmatter, sensations, perceptions, formations and consciousness.  The Paṭisambhidāmagga also points out that thepractitioner whose vipassanā isdeveloped will possess eighteen principal insights.^[39]　The main motifs of these eighteen insights are contemplation ofimpermanence (anicca),contemplation of suffering (dukkha)and contemplation of non-self (anattā)and emptiness (suññatā).Although the mention of contemplation of emptiness cannot be found in MN73, nevertheless, according toTheravādin doctrine, since this contemplation is similar to the contemplationof non-self, the motifs shown by the Paṭisambhidāmagga are equal to those of MN73.  Furthermore, Acharn Chah, one of the greatest meditationmasters in Thailand, not only agreed with this statement, but went further toexplain why contemplating these three characteristics can lead to nibbāna.  He said that when the practitionerobserves everything and finds it is impermanence, unsatisfactoriness (orsuffering), and non-self (or emptiness) in its own nature, his mind will becalmed.^[40]　 Likewise, another Thai meditation master, Buddhadāsa, also spelledout that insight into these threefold characteristics consists of thepractitioner realizing that “nothing is worth getting, that no objectwhatsoever should be grasped at and clung to as being a self or as belonging toa self, as being good or bad, attractive or repulsive, liking or dislikingthings, even an idea or memory, is clinging.”^[41]　If a practitioner gives up grasping, he or she will not have rebirthin samsāra.

2.4.3 The stage of obtaining vipassanā

In which stage vipassanā becomes mature?  No decisive answer could be found inthe Pāli suttas.  Yet we did findsome descriptions where the practitioner whose vipassanā becomesmature when the practitioner attains the stream-entry path (sotāpatti-magga) with the first jhāna (the first level of calm).  According to Saṃyutta Nikāya, when the practitioner obtains calm and vipassanā, he or shecan cease perception and feeling.^[42]　 MN151 also says that when the practitioner develops serenity and vipassanā, he or she stays in a happyand glad state, and trains in wholesome states all the time.^[43]

The Paṭisambhidāmagga gives a more detailed analysis. The text shows that the one who hasalready developed vipassanā becomes dispassionate, causes greed tofade away, does not cling to anything and finally attains cessation andrelinquishes all.^[44]　 We found that in the SallekhaSutta,^[45]　the situation is similar to thefirst stage of jhāna which isdetached from sense-desires and unwholesome states, and abides in joy andpleasure born of detachment. Nevertheless, there are two paragraphs in the Paṭisambhidāmagga which suggest that vipassanā is cultivated in thestream-entry path.  The firstparagraph points out that there are ten sorts of equanimity of formations (sankhārārupeti) which arise through insight, and these equanimity can lead to thestream-entry path.^[46]　 The second paragraph mentions that when the practitioner seeseverything to be in conformity with the forty aspects,^[47]　he enters upon the certainty of rightness (sammattaniyāma) of the stream-entry path (sotāpatti-magga). Then he can attain thefruit of stream-entry (sotāpatti-phala),even the fruit of arahantship.^[48]　The main motifs of these forty aspects contemplated by thepractitioner are the threefold characteristics of the five aggregates.  As we mentioned before, this is theessential function of vipassanā.  Therefore, it may be suggested that vipassanā can be completely broughtout in the stream-entry path with the concentration of the first jhāna.^[49]

According to the previousdiscussion, it may be concluded that the sort of vipassanā which leads to attaining enlightenment is a sort ofintuitive insight whose function is beyond rational analysis, speculations, andassumption.  By means ofmeditation, it becomes mature in the stream-entry path with the concentrationof the first jhāna which inturn becomes powerful and sharpened enough to penetrate into the nature of allphysical and mental world.  As aresult, the practitioner can achieve the realization of the true nature ofimpermanence, suffering and non-self and then attains to nibbāna.^[50]

With regard to the relationshipbetween vipassanā and paññā, as we can see from theprevious information.  If vipassanā can be classified into a kind of paññā,  it is a sort of wisdom (paññā) which is endowed with insightful power and after beingstrengthened and sharpened by meditation, this insight (vipassanā) is powerful enough to see through all phenomena andcan lead to enlightenment. Therefore, it is a kind of supramundane paññā in particular meaningrather than the ordinary intellectual activity. 

Here after this essay will goeson to discuss what is the technique which brings out this insight and why itdiffers from intellect activity.

3. Vipassanā meditation

In this section, the essay willfocus on examining whether vipassanā meditationis a purely intellectual activity. We will investigate this question by examining three aspects:  (1) the main objects observed by the vipassanā practitioner;  (2) theessential principles of vipassanāmeditation; and (3) the process of the cultivation of vipassanā.  Thecorresponding teaching of the Pāli suttas and of contemporary vipassanā masters will be taken intoconsideration.

3.1  The mainobjects observed by the vipassanā practitioner

As King (1980:82-102) pointed outthe main object which the vipassanā practitioner contemplates on is the“self-as-experiencing” object, particularly the five aggregates.  The key point for taking these factorsinto investigation is that they are intrinsic to the practitioner’sexperiences.  It is due to theseexperiences that the practitioner wrongly considers them to have a substantialexistence, so that due to thinking in this way, he or she transmigrates againand again.  Therefore, to penetrateinto the nature of these factors and to see what they really are is theessential aim of vipassanā meditation.  Accordingly, the observance of the body-mind as it functionsis the central and most crucial focus of vipassanā meditation.  We find examples in many suttas.  Here is a typical example:

As we mentioned before, vipassanā is cultivated by abhiññā,thus we know the five aggregates, i.e. the material form aggregate, the feelingaggregate, the perception aggregate, the formations aggregate and consciousnessaggregate affected by clinging, are the main objects which are contemplated bythe vipassanāpractitioner.  In addition, fromthis sutta, we find the key point of choosing these five objects is that theyare “affected by clinging”.  Thisis, what the practitioner concentrates on is not the abstract conception dealtwith by intellect;  rather, it issomething that actually occurs in one’s daily life and relates to one’sfeelings closely.

3.2  Theessential principles of vipassanāmeditation

We mentioned previously thatcontemplation on threefold nature of impermanence, suffering and not-self ofall things is  the heart ofdeveloping vipassanā.  In turn, it is this unique techniquewhich leads the practitioner to achieve nibbanā.  However, it also seems to be the reasonwhich causes the confusion between vipassanāmeditation and intellectual exercises.  For instance, Vetter (1988:35) assumed that discriminatinginsight can attain enlightenment and asks for no meditation.  Furthermore, he explained that thetechnique is to know that the human being is made up by constituents.  The themes dealt with by Vetter arevirtually the essential issues of vipassanāmeditation; however, the technique which was suggested by him is different fromwhat we found in the Pāli suttas.

Firstly, the Paṭisambhidāmagga suggests that to practise vipassanā is to contemplate the threefoldcharacteristics within all dhammas.^[52]　 The text says:

The mentioned eighteen insightspossessed by vipassanā alsoshow that these threefold characteristics are the essential principle ofcultivating vipassanā althoughthe actual objects observed by the practitioner are different.  The reason for meditating on thesethree characteristics is that they are a natural law.  Once the practitioner penetrates into these characteristics,he or she will find out the nature of things and realize that what people graspat is an illusory substance. Furthermore, since these threefold characteristics exist intrinsicallyand they do not possess inherent existence, what the practitioner needs to dois simply observe it and find out its true nature.  Practising the technique requires neither speculation norfurther assumptions.

3.3  The processand techniques of vipassanā meditation(or cultivation of vipassanā)

According to the Satipaṭṭhānasutta, the most famous sutta with regard to vipassanā meditation, the process and techniques are as follows:

This sutta uses the body as anobserved object, so the practitioner observes the arising and ceasing ofphenomena which appear in his or her body.  This sutta goes onnarrating the observing of arising and ceasing which happen in feelings(vedanā), mental states (citta)and mental objects (dhamma).  That is, the arising and ceasing of allphenomena of physical and mental world. The Sāmañña-phala Sutta^[54]　goes further to explain thedetail of this technique:

The same practice is alsoemployed in hearing a sound with the ear, smelling an odour with the nose,tasting a flavour with the tongue, sensing a tactile object with the body orbecoming conscious of an image with the mind.

The aforementioned suttas showthat, the most essential technique employed to contemplate impermanence,suffering and non-self is to observe or to be aware of these threefoldcharacteristics.  He neither analyzesthe object nor does he or she thinks of or judges anything.  Whatever the practitioner sees orwhatever he or she does, he or she merely notices everything.  As Acharn Chah pointed out, “turn yourtranquil mind toward sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, thoughts, mentalobjects, mental factors.  Whateverarises, investigate it.  Noticewhether you like it or not, whether it pleases or displeases you, but do notget involved with it.”^[55]　 Mahasi Sayadaw, the most influential contemporary meditation masterof Burma, gave a further reason for using this bare contemplation.  He said that the practice ofcontemplation aims to discover the true nature of the mind-body complex.  Therefore, the technique is to observeevery mental activity as it occurs inasmuch as people usually regard that thereis a living entity of self which grows up from childhood to adulthood.  People also hold that there is a “person”,“self” and “living entity” who is “thinking” or “planning”.  In fact, such a living entity does notexist. What does exist is “a continuous process of elements of mind which occursingly.”  Therefore, on theoccurrence of each activity, such as “thinking”, “planning”, “reflecting”,“knowing”, “attending”, “rejoicing” and “feeling lazy,” as the case may be, oneshould only be aware of it. Through this practice, the practitioner will experience and penetrateinto the true nature of all phenomena. Then he lets go of attachment to everything.^[56]

All the above techniques, fromthe main observing objects to the process of vipassanā meditation, suggest that the cultivation of vipassanā does not requireintellectual analysis or speculation. Yet, one may argue that the developing of vipassanā still can not avoid intellectual activity by virtue ofthe practitioner using conceptual realization and categorization.  For instance, Acharn Chah suggestedthat no matter what sort of activity occurs in one’s mind, in addition to beingaware of his or her emotional reaction, the practitioner should see it in adeeper level, that is, to categorize everything that arises into impermanence,suffering and non-self.^[57]

This suggests that even toobserve or to contemplate the threefold characteristics, one is involved in“realizing” and “categorizing” the activities which present themselves to thepractitioner.  For, if thepractitioner does not realize or categorize the activities, there may be only aplain mind or other thoughts come up to the practitioner’s mind.  However, these intellectual activitiesare subtle and slight mental activities.  Furthermore, these mental activities may be said to happen inthe “background” of cultivating vipassanā rather than in the “foreground” of vipassanā practice.  This meansthat those subtle intellectual exercises occur more subconsciously instead ofin the manner of logically analyzing and deducing.  Therefore, the intellectual activities which are involved inconstructing other new ideas, such as discriminating, judging and inferringetc. are different from the technique employed in vipassanā meditation. 

Another significant underlyingmessage is that this sort of technique may be practised at any moment.  The practitioner may concentrate his orher mind on any object which occurs to him or her.  Accordingly, to sit down with the posture of crossed legs isnot the most crucial prerequisite because, according to the SatipaṭthānaSutta^[58]　 and the teachings of meditation masters, this technique can bepractised when walking, standing, lying or sitting as well as any physical andmental movement.  Therefore, as King (1980:94) pointedout, vipassanā meditation canbe applied much more readily to daily life than jhāna concentration can be.  Although vipassanāmeditation also needs some periods and special modes of concentration toachieve enlightenment, it is still able to extend to all types of lives andactivities.

4. The relationship between samatha and vipassanā meditation in terms of achieving enlightenment

The argument regarding this themecan be divided into three different opinions.  First of all, Buddhaghosa pointed out that samatha meditation is the tool forachieving vipassanā meditation.  The character and the quality of thejhāna states, apart from the state of neither-perception-nor-non-perception(there, no such factors are available for investigation), bear a closerelationship to the quality of attaining the Path.^[59]　Likewise, King suggested that the mind, quitened and sharpened bythe jhānas, is conducive to the vipassanā process but it only requires moderate concentration.^[60]

However, Vetter (1988:36) arguedthat the teaching of discriminating insight in MN 22 and MN 74 asks forno support of jhāna meditation.

The aforementioned argument canbe classified into three issues. Firstly, in terms of achieving liberation,whether vipassanā meditation should be supported by jhānameditation.  Secondly, if theprocess of vipassanā calls for jhāna meditation,what sort of meditation does it ask for? Thirdly, in what sense does vipassanāachievement  not necessitateany jhāna meditation?  All thesethree involve the term “jhāna meditation”; accordingly, we will probe into thisterm first.  Then we will go oninquiring into the relationship between jhāna meditation and vipassanā meditation in terms ofattaining enlightenment.

According to the Pāli English Dictionary, jhāna (Sanskrit: dhyāna) refers to meditationon an object or burning up anything adverse.  Literally it means meditation.^[61]　Vajirañāṇa pointed out that, according to the usage in Pāli cannon and itscommentaries, there are two meanings of this word.  One means “concentration on” or “to examine closely” thecharacteristics of phenomenal existence. Another meaning refers to eliminating the mental intoxicants in order toattain higher progress.^[62]　 It is the first meaning, i.e concentration or meditation, which iswidely accepted in general. Nevertheless, when employed as a technical term, it refers to the secondmeaning, and especially, denotes the four stages of meditation.^[63]

Following the aforementionedjhāna definitions, we found that the above argument concerning vipassanā meditation and jhāna meditation also includes these twomeanings.  Buddhaghosa’s view isthat vipassanā is related tothe stages of jhāna and, similarly, King states that it contains the jhānastages of meditation.  Vetter’sdefinition seems to denote only the first meaning, i.e. concentration, becausehe wrote: “……dhyāna-meditation, some concentration in examining theconstituents……”.^[64]　 But here we can come to no definite conclusion from this statement,and we can only assume that the jhāna meditationsuggested by him includes both meanings of jhāna. In this regard, there is someresource which counters what Vetter suggested about one can achieve liberationwithout the help of meditation.

According to the Paṭisambhidāmagga,^[65]　 the practitioner reaches arahantship by four paths or by one of thefour paths.  What four? (1) Thepractitioner develops vipassanāpreceded by samatha.  This meansthat through renunciation, the practitioner concentrates his or her mind andreaches one-pointedness and non-distraction.  Then he or she contemplates the impermanence, suffering andnon-self of all things.  (2) Thepractitioner develops samathapreceded by vipassanā.  This refers to the idea that,through insight into the threefold characteristics of every thing, thepractitioner’s mind becomes one-pointed and non-distracted.  (3) The practitioner develops samatha and vipassanā coupledtogether.  This denotes the ideathat, samatha and vipassanā meditation, are coupled together in sixteen aspects, such as:supporting-object, domain, abandoning and turning away etc.^[66]　(4) The practitioner re-concentrates or resettles the vipassanā.  Although the forth path does not mention serenitydirectly, since it requires re-concentrating and resettling one’s mind, it alsoimplies a certain level of concentration involved.  Accordingly, it also suggests that vipassanā and samatha interconnects mutually to some extent.

The above information makes itclear that, traditionally, in order to attain enlightenment, the practitioneris supposed to practise samathatogether with vipassanā, andthe issue is not of serenity preceding vipassanāor vipassanā preceding samatha or these two workingtogether.  We can find that,Buddhaghosa and King held similar ideas to the tradition, even though theydiffered as to what extent of samathathe practitioner should have.

Based on the information thisessay reveals in section 2.4.3, itmay be suggested that complete vipassanā which can penetrate into the truenature of all things, requires the first jhāna concentrations while practicing vipassanā meditation only needs moderate concentration.  As Buddhadāsa pointed out in the “Insight by the Nature Method”, “the intensity of concentration that comes aboutnaturally is usually sufficient and appropriate for introspection and insight.” ^[67]　 Likewise, King (1980:93) also suggested that the concentrationemployed in vipassanā meditation is much lower than on thefour jhāna stages.  Vipassanā meditation only requiresrelative one-pointedness.  We alsofound several illuminating passages in practitioners’ accounts, such as whatRoger Walsh wrote in “Initial meditation Experiences” and Rod Bucknell wrote in“Experiments in Insight Meditation”.^[68]　 However, why there are some suttas, for instance, MN22 and MN74, having been suggested to be thosesuttas mentioning  that thepractitioner obtains liberation only through vipassanā meditation and needs no jhāna meditation.^[69]　Here we will examine the practice mentioning by these two suttas andtry to figure out in what sense the practice asks for no meditation.

The paragraphs mentioned by MN22 only briefly describe thetechniques of perceiving (samanupassati) the impermanence, suffering andnon-self of the five aggregates. It says, after observing in this way, the practitioner is disgusted with(nibbindate) these mental and non-mental factors and frees himself from desireand destroys rebirth.^[70]　 It appears to be too brief to do a further investigation.  Therefore, we go further to consult MN 74.  This sutta mentions that Sāriputta is released from thecankers after hearing the instruction. The sutta describes it thus:

According to this information,Vetter suggests that Sāriputta freed himself from fetters by “thinking over”the instruction of the Buddha instead of going through genuine meditation. The reason why he judged that Sāriputta obtains liberation withoutmeditation is because Sāriputta, accompanied by other people, is fanning and isnot sitting quietly.

There are some problematic issuesrelating to the above assumption. Firstly, in terms of attaining the fourstages of jhāna, it may be true that one cannot attain these stages whilemoving.  However, it is not true ifwe take the practice of vipassanā intoaccount.  For, according to vipassanā meditation, the posture isnot the most essential factor for achievement.  It is the mind of the practitioner which is concentratedenough to penetrate into the threefold characteristics of things.  Secondly, by that time, if Sāriputtadid not concentrate his mind on the teaching and go on to meditate on it, it isimpossible for him to eradicate his attachments and liberate himself fromcankers.  That is, if he cannotconcentrate his mind on-one-point-object (whatever is a thought or an object)to some extent, and last long enough to penetrate into the nature of thatobject, he cannot attain the realization. Besides, even it the realization could occur suddenly, it does notexclude that Sāriputta may have meditate constantly for quite a long time andmay have cultivated and sharpened his insight powerful enough to see throughthe nature of all phenomena. Thirdly, if the realization can be obtained simply by “thinking over” anobject by ordinary intelligent, why there is no case which fulfills the task ofliberation even though so many people’s tasks rely heavily on the intellectualactivities and usually thinking things serious, such as scientists,philosophers and scholars. 

Therefore, it may be suggestedthat in terms of liberation, it does require special meditation, i.e. vipassanā meditation, to facilitate the development of insight and it cannotattain enlightenment barely by intellectual thinking.  Even though this vipassanāmeditation need not be supported by certain jhāna stages, it does require some intensity of concentration.  Furthermore, the techniques, theobserving object and the mode employed by the vipassanā practitionersare entirely different from the intellectual thinking per se.  Therefore, even though there appears tobe suttas, MN22 and MN74, mentioning that some practitionersattain enlightenment without the help of quietly sitting meditation, it doesnot exclude that the practitioner's mind has to concentrate enough to bring outthe powerful insight to penetrate into the true nature of the phenomenalworld.  Moreover, the mentalprocess which leads to the realization is vipassanā meditation,a practice employed to cultivate and bring the powerful insight rather thanintellectual speculation and analysis.  In this case, saying that through vipassanā meditation one attains enlightenment unsupported by jhānameditation is only true when jhāna (mediation) refers to the four stages ofclam but it is not true when the jhāna refers to its general meaning ofmeditation or concentration.  Alsoit is not true to assume that the liberation is simply brought out by theintellectual and rational thinking.

5. Conclusion

As we mentioned at the outset,there are some controversial issues in practising vipassanā and samatha.  After examining the Pāli suttas, theVisuddhimagga and the teachings of some vipassanā masters,some findings could be suggested:

(1) The confusion of vipassanā andvipassanā meditation (vipassanā bhāvanā) leads us todiscussing whether it is necessary to practise meditation in term of obtainingenlightenment. According to our investigation, vipassanā is a sort of intuitive insight which becomes verypowerful and can penetrate into the true nature of all phenomena, i.e.impermanence, suffering and non-self of everything, after it being sharpened bymeditation.  On the other hand, vipassanā meditation refers to a practice, which is the process ofcultivating vipassanā. Furthermore, theinsight (vipassanā) leading toliberation is a kind of wisdom which is brought out by vipassanā meditation,but not vipassanā meditation itself.

(2) The main observed objects, the five aggregates, and the essentialprinciples of vipassanā meditation suggest that thepractitioner works with the things experienced by himself or herself ratherthan some purely abstract conceptions which are beyond  practitioner’s experiences.  Moreover, the process of developing vipassanā shows that even although there are some subtle intellectualactivities occurring in the practitioner’s subconsciousness, the maintechniques employed by the practitioner are “contemplating”, “observing” and“being mindful of” the activities of human being’s daily physical and mentalmovements.  All these informationsuggest that vipassanā meditation hardly bear a relationshipwith those intellectual activities of rational analysis, speculation,assumption and the like.

(3) The discussion of the relationship between samatha and vipassanāmeditation suggests that, in terms of attaining enlightenment through vipassanā meditation, even though it requires no jhāna stages, it doesnecessitate reaching a certain intensity of calm.  Therefore, maintaining that by means of vipassanā meditation, the practitioner can attain enlightenment withoutjhāna is only true when this term refers to the four jhāna stages. However, itis not true when jhāna refers to the sense of meditation or concentration.  Also the liberation can only andnecessarily brought out by meditation. Thus, it is not true to presume that the mental activities which leadsto realization can be a pure form of intellectual activity and require no helpat all of either samatha or vipassanāmeditation.

Bibliography

Abbreviations for names if texts ( published by the Pali Texts Society)

AN =Aṅguttara Nikāya

DN = Dīgha Nikāya

MN = Majjhims Nikāya

SN = Saṃyutta Nikāya

Vin.= Vinaya

Paṭi=Paṭisambhidāmagga