Human being is inclined to seek for happiness. They used various methods to gain happiness, such as religious sacrifices, rituals and ascetic practices. During the Vedic period, sacrifices were performed to gain wealth and fortune in this very life. In the following Upaniṣadic period, objective of sacrifices was not only limited to worldly success, but also to attain liberation from transmigration. After beginning of śramaṇa tradition, sacrifices were performed only for attaining liberation. Indian history reports the existence of several śramaṇa sects. They had adopted various methods for reaching liberation while maintaining mutually varying concepts about freedom. The texts which developed from Vedic period to early Buddhism, record about these śramaṇa groups and their practicing methods. Conducting rituals and sacrifices during Vedic and post-Vedic periods, were based on the instructions given in the Vedas, Brahmaṇas, Āraṇyakas and Upaniṣads. After beginning of śramaṇa tradition, some groups practiced asceticism, at the same time, they practiced a kind of practices, called vṛta or vata. Due to the impression that torturing body would remove the karma, some practices were physically tormenting. The removing karma would bring about liberation. This was the concept of Jaina etc śramaṇas about liberation and practicing. Later, Buddhism emerged as a novel and differing tradition from other śramaṇa groups. The Buddha taught that practicing rituals and austerities, would not bring about liberation; similarly, there is no relation between removing karma and attaining freedom. In pre-Buddhist era, spiritual training was confined to morality and mental cultivation; Buddhism introduced the element of wisdom (paññā) into this two-stepped practice. Buddhist understanding of morality and asceticism differed from other śramaṇa groups. Buddhist asceticism does not harm the body. The Buddhist ascetic practice is called dhutaṅga. According to the Visuddhimagga , by practicing dhutaṅga, one can attain moral perfection. Further, following dhutaṅga is conducive to a simple life and to minimize hindrances against practice. Instead of the popular denial of asceticism, the concept of dhutaṅga suggests an approval of it in Buddhism. The significant divergence regarding asceticism in Buddhism and other śramaṇa traditions is that the former does not propose a relation between liberation from kamma and ascetic practices, whereas the latter does so. To conclude, ascetic practices (dhutaṅga) serves only up to the perfection of morality in Buddhism.
