This thesis is a study of a Ming Buddhist master Hanshan Deqing 憨山德清 (1546- 1623) and his third commentary to the Lotus Sutra composed in the year 1615, the A General Interpretation of the Lotus Sutra (Miaofa Lianhuajing Tongyi 妙法蓮華經通義, abbreviated hereafter as the Fahua Tongyi 法華通義). The primary goal of this thesis is to answer two questions: why is it necessary for Deqing to compose another commentary to the Lotus Sutra in the Ming dynasty (1368-1644)? Are there innovative concepts that Deqing implemented in his work? Most importantly, this thesis aims at determining the epochal significance and the historical value of the Fahua Tongyi in the late Ming.
Amongst the six chapters in this thesis, the author shall begin the discussion with a detailed overview of the life and thoughts of Deqing as well as introducing the Fahua Tongyi in the second chapter. Then, chapters three to five are the major contents in this thesis; whereas philosophical discussions in the Fahua Tongyi shall be dealt with: the concept of expedient means, the concept of Buddha-nature, and the influences from the Suramgama Sutra.
TABLE OF CONTENTS 摘要 I Abstract II Table of Contents III Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Review of Previous Scholarship 3 Buddhism in the Ming 4 The Life and Thoughts of Deqing 5 Commentaries to the Lotus Sutra in Chinese Buddhist History 6 Research Approach 8 Doctrinal Analysis 8 Historical Approach 10 Introduction to Independent Chapters 10 Chapter 2 Hanshan Deqing and his Fahua Tongyi 18 Introduction 18 The Backdrop of the Late Ming 21 An Overview of Deqing’s Life 23 Life Before Renunciation (1546-1557) 25 Deqing’s Early Life as a Monk (1558-1569) 26 A Life of Pilgrimage (1570-1576) 28 Deqing’s Enlightened Experience (1577-1582) 32 Deqing’s Early Teaching Career (1583-1595) 35 The Caoxi Revival Period (1606-1610) 37 Deqing’s Prolific Later Years (1611-1623) 41 Deqing’s Works 47 The Fahua Tongyi 50 Versions of the Fahua Tongyi 51 Patronages and Proofreaders of the Fahua Tongyi 55 Structure of the Fahua Tongyi 61 Conclusion 63 Appendix 67 Chapter 3 Deqing’s Concepts of Expedient Means in the Fahua Tongyi 73 Introduction 73 To Guide Sentient Beings with a Lower Capacity 75 To Introduce a Method of Expedient Practice 80 To Understand the Wisdom of the Buddha 85 To Reveal the One Great Reason of Causes and Conditions 90 Conclusion 92 Chapter 4 Deqing’s Concept of Buddha-nature in the Fahua Tongyi 95 Introduction 95 The Nature of the Seed of Buddhahood 98 The Primordial Nature of the foxing zhongzi 99 The Universal Nature of the foxing zhongzi 102 Do all Sentient Beings Possess Buddha-nature? 104 The Issue of icchantika’s Buddha-nature 107 The Path to Buddhahood 111 Conclusion 116 Chapter 5 Suramgama Concepts in the Fahua Tongyi 120 Introduction 120 Resolving Practitioners’ Doubts about Merits 123 Merits Gained by Upholding the Sutra 126 The Path of Enlightenment to the Perfection of Wisdom 129 Fourteen Merits of Fearlessness of Avalokiteshvara 130 Thirty-two Auspicious Manifestations of Avalokiteshvara 136 Conclusion 140 Appendix 142 Chapter 6 Conclusion 152 Bibliography 156 Primary Sources 156 Secondary Sources 158 Online Database and Sources 166
