淨土美術=Pure Land art; 來迎圖=Laiyingtu; 觀經變相圖=Guanjing Sutra Tableau; 源信=Genshin; 西方三聖=the Western Traids
摘要
阿彌陀佛淨土思想源自印度彌陀淨土信仰，為大乘佛教重要思想之一。在中國濫觴於北魏，北朝至唐代的中國正處於長期封建割據和戰爭綿綿不斷，造成社會不安，西方極樂淨土的教義為人民心理及精神上所需求，再加上統治者崇信佛教，更促進西方淨土信仰在此時期的迅速發展，並且表現在持戒、造像、抄經、誦經及繪製經典變相圖等修行活動、以祈獲得追福、解厄、積德之效果。 到了唐代，淨土教義在前朝諸宗師的弘揚為基礎，再加上道綽（562–645）及曾經畫西方淨土變相三百餘鋪、抄《阿彌陀經》十萬卷的善導（613–681）等淨土教大師，闡揚簡易修行法門，所獲果報的殊勝，淨土信仰達到前所未有的高峰，並且獨立成立一個宗派，為漢傳佛教當中一個重要的思想。此時在石窟繪製經典變相圖非常興盛，以「淨土三經」為題材的作品，大多此時期所繪製。在敦煌莫高窟初唐描繪的「觀經變相圖」，其下緣就描繪了阿彌陀佛來迎的「九品往生圖」，為中國現存最早的來迎圖例證。另外，發現於敦煌藏經洞的「引路菩薩圖」，其表現菩薩接引亡靈風格的圖像，展現了唐朝精湛的繪畫藝術。 宋代時期，禪宗思想興起，諸山林立，禪淨雙修，天台系之北宋戒珠、南宋志磐及宗曉等的往生思想著作中，皆提到阿彌陀佛來迎事蹟。當時石窟壁畫的繪製式微，繪製在絹布、宣紙的文人畫風的人物、山水等掛軸式的作品流行，中國的繪畫藝術發展達到高峰。掛畫式的來迎圖也在此時產生，現在存世的作品有阿彌陀佛來迎圖、阿彌陀三尊來迎圖等屈指可數。不過唐宋的來迎圖像及中國繪畫技法，卻是隨著佛教傳播，傳入到臨近國家及地區。 西夏因受到中原佛教和藏傳佛教影響之下發展具有區域性和民族性的佛教。又地臨宋代西北、與南方的吐蕃（今藏區）交界，天然環境惡劣，和面對周邊政權的戰爭及生活堅苦的人民而言，人們自然的對極樂淨土的追求，以致往生淨土思想流傳於西夏。從黑水城出土充滿漢藏繪畫技法及風格特色的俄藏來迎圖，就可以知道淨土信仰流行的情況，並且看出西夏人的淨土信仰是重視阿彌陀佛現前來迎、重視往生者化現為童子及具體的個人往生。西夏阿彌陀三尊來迎圖中的觀音、勢至，有別於宋代，站立於阿彌陀佛之前，彎身前傾，表現接引往生者之姿態。 日本的淨土繪畫藝術，也是隨著佛教經朝鮮半島傳入而萌芽，飛鳥、白鳳時期阿彌陀佛形象化流行，並且派遣使者至中國學習藝術。奈良時代受盛唐文化影響，佛教藝術充滿唐風的風格。以「綴織當麻曼荼羅」最為有名，具有石窟觀經變相圖的特色。到了平安前期，日本阿彌陀信仰受入唐求法的天台宗圓仁（794–864）帶回淨土念佛的影響，其後惠心僧都即源信（942–1017）著述《往生要集》，勸說觀想念佛與稱名念佛，並且舉辦阿彌陀佛與聖眾來迎往生者，即所謂「迎講」的法會。 之後，日本淨土信仰重視「欣求淨土，厭離穢土」，於天喜元年（1053）在宇治建造的平等院鳳凰堂之扉壁上描繪「大和繪」的〈九品來迎圖〉。作為觀想念佛與臨終行儀之掛畫式的獨立來迎圖，在源信的創作之下蓬勃發展起來。其結構透過作為理想世界、現實世界的要素、來迎聖眾數的多寡及往生者的描繪否等，描繪出正面向、斜面向及山越等來迎圖形式，各別又有阿彌陀聖眾來迎圖、阿彌陀二十五菩薩來迎圖、阿彌陀三尊圖、阿彌陀單尊圖等圖像。由上述可知，淨土信仰起源於印度，在中國形成，成熟於日本。 Originating from India, Amitabha Pure Land thought is one of the important Mahayana Buddhist thoughts. Being transmitted to China since the Northern Wei Dynasty, it flourished and acted as a great consolation to the general public who suffered from the prolonged period of feudal confrontation and warfare. Up to the end of the Tang Dynasty, multiple devout Buddhist emperors popularized this belief exponentially. People started to practice Buddhism such as upholding precepts, making Buddhist statues, writing sutras, reciting sutras, and painting Buddhist sutra tableaus to accumulate merits, resolve terrible misfortune, and cultivate virtues. During the Tang Dynasty, based on the doctrines built by its predecessors, Pure Land masters such as Daochuo（562–645）who painted over 300 Western Pure Land Tableaux and Shandao（613–681）who transcribed more than a hundred thousand scrolls of Amitabha Sutra and advocated a simplified way of practice pushed Pure Land belief to a new height and became one of the important doctrines in Chinese Buddhism. As portraying sutra tableaux was common in Buddhist caves, most of the surviving Pure Land Three Sutras tableaux were represented then. The earliest Chinese Laiying painting can be found in the “nine classes of rebirth” section on the bottom part of the Guanjing Sutra Tableauin Dunhuang dated to the early Tang Dynasty. In addition, the Bodhisattva Leading the Way Painting depicting the Bodhisattva receiving the newly deceased found in Cave 17 of Dunhuang reveals the sophisticated painting skill of the Tang artist. With the popularization of the Chan thought in the Song Dynasty, many monasteries practiced both Chan and Pure land Buddhism. Venerable Jiezhu of Tiantai Buddhism active in the Northern Song Dynasty and Venerable Zhipan and Zongxiao of the Southern Song Dynasty all mentioned Amitabha Buddha receiving the newly deceaseds. As fewer cave paintings were made and figurative and landscape literati scrolls of silk and rice paper became prevalent, the art of Chinese painting reached its epitome. A few Song Dynasty Laiying hanging scrolls such as Amitabha Laiying painting and Amitabha Triad Laiying Painting survived. Laiying Buddha painted during the Tang and the Song Dynasties as long as the painting skills were transmitted to the neighboring counties along with the Buddhist thoughts. Being influenced by Chinese and Tibetan Buddhism, Xixia Buddhism developed its distinctive regional and national features. Located northwest of the Song territory and north of Tibet, the Xixia people were naturally attracted to the
