As one of the Fourfold Assemblies of Buddhist Disciples, Upāsikās have contributed greatly to the development of Buddhism, which manifests in the form of their practice and vows. However, due to the marginalized status of women, they have often been omitted by history annals. This thesis will conduct a systematized research on the cultivation and virtues of model Buddhist Upāsikās of various time periods—ancient India, Chinese imperial dynasties, and the first year of the Republic of China—through organizing literature such as Early Buddhist texts, Mahayana texts, Chinese Buddhist historical records, and biographies. Cultivation of Upāsikās found in Early Buddhist texts emphasized building a sound character and benefiting future lives. Upāsikās during the period of Mahayana Buddhism, other than cultivating to benefit oneself, also extended to the bodhisattva practice by benefiting others. Upāsikās within Chinese Buddhist texts focused on Pure Land Cultivation in order to adapt to conditions such as imperial policies and the social environment. Upāsikās of the modern era are mostly highly educated and financially self-reliant; their practice and vows are no longer limited to the household, rather, they reach out to society, translate sutras, write commentaries, and construct monasteries and schools. The practice and vows of Upāsikās of different eras demonstrate the defining characteristic of cultivation of their respective time periods, as well as highlight the differences in Buddhism as it transmitted from India to China. According to records, the Upāsikās chosen as the subjects of research are exemplars who have demonstrated resilience in adapting to their social environments, as well as their devout faith and perseverance in actual practice. These qualities remain constant throughout each time period. It is hoped that through the research of the practice and vows of Upāsikās in ancient Indian society and imperial Chinese society, this research can provide an entry point of cultivation to lay female practitioners of Humanistic Buddhism of today. It is also hoped that this research may provide reference for future research on women in Buddhism, as well as current women social issues.
