History; Tang Dynasty (China); Buddhism – Discipline; Buddhist monks; Great Buddha (Tōdaiji, Nara-shi, Japan)
摘要
In 733, Japan’s ninth diplomatic mission to Tang China conveyed two Japanese Buddhist monks committed to finding a Chinese master of Buddhist precepts. The prevailing explanation for the precepts master solicitation states that Japan lacked sufficient numbers of fully ordained monks to conduct ordinations using vinaya codes of conduct. While this campaign successfully resulted in precept masters going to Japan in 736 and again in 754, there were no notable changes to monastic ordinations until after the final monk arrived. It is commonly presumed that only the latter precepts master possessed sufficient charisma, training, and followers necessary to establish a vinaya tradition. However, this explanation presumes that the later reforms matched the original expedition’s intent. Moreover, this position ignores the other monks’ activities in Japan’s political, cultural, and religious affairs between 736-754. It is also not supported by period texts. In this work, I utilize textual and physical evidence to demonstrate that these overseas monks’ activities and significance were largely unrelated to monastic precepts and ordinations. Instead, they rose to prominence due to their knowledge of Buddhist texts and rituals, familiarity with neighboring countries’ Buddhist legitimation and protection systems, fluency in overseas forms of cultural capital, and embodied otherness. Their influence can be seen in their involvement in the Ministry for Monastic Affairs, promulgation of the Avataṃsaka Sutra, and the creation and worship of the Great Buddha of Nara.
Through highlighting these understudied and highly diverse monks, I demonstrate that Japan’s overseas population was intrinsically involved with the country’s transformation into a transregionally-connected, Buddhist country. Moreover, I argue that the overseas monks affiliated with Daianji Temple (大安寺) provided the Japanese court with direct ties to foreign countries that not only expanded Japanese international awareness, but also helped establish the country’s understanding of its position within a broader Buddhist world.
目次
List of Tables iv Acknowledgments v Dedication viii
Introduction 1 0.1 Chapter Summaries 4 0.2 The Daianji Overseas Monks 7 0.3 Japan’s Global Awareness 13 0.4 Japan’s Overseas Population 18 0.5 Conclusion21
Chapter 1: Leveraging Legitimacy: Recruiting Religious Specialists and Promoting Buddhist State Protection 24 1.1 Chapter Breakdown 26 1.2 The Overseas Monks of Daianji Temple 27 1.3 Review of Sources & Biographies 29 1.3.1 Daoxuan 35 1.3.2 Bodhisena 43 1.3.3 Phật Triệt 53 1.3.4 Jianzhen 57 1.3.5 Simsang 63 1.4 Conclusion 69
Chapter 2: Celebration and Celebrants: The Multicultural Spectacle of Tōdaiji Temple’s Eye-Opening Ceremony 73 2.1 Chapter Overview 75 2.2 The Overseas Monks and the Flower Garland Sutra 77 2.3 The Flower Garland Sutra and Tōdaji Temple 81 2.4 Review of Sources 85 2.5 Music and Dance at the Eye-Opening Ceremony 88 2.6 The Shoku Nihongi’s Account 96 2.7 The Tōdaiji Yōroku’s Account 98 2.7.1 Preamble 99 2.7.2 Procession 103 2.7.3 Ceremony 106 2.7.4 Musical Celebration 110 2.7.5 Alms-giving 116 2.8 Conclusion 117
Chapter 3: Precepts and Politics: Monastic Ordination Reform and Political Control 120 3.1 Chapter Overview 127 3.2 Review of Sources 128 3.3 Defining Precepts 130 3.3.1 Lay Precepts (śīla) 131 3.3.2 Monastic Precepts (vinaya) 134 3.3.3 Bodhisattva Precepts 138 3.4 Precepts and Ordinations in Japan 151 3.5 Textual References of Precepts 158 3.5.1 The Nihon Shoki 158 3.5.2 The Sōniryō 164 3.5.3 The Risshi Shōsei Texts 167 3.6 Conclusion 173
Conclusion 176 References 182 Appendices 200 Appendix A: The Eye-opening Ceremony Passage from the Tōdaiji yōroku 200 Appendix B: The Risshi Shōsei passage from the Tōdaiji yōroku 209 Appendix C: The Edited Biography of Daoxuan wajō 211
