In Dharmakīrti’s apoha-theory, the terms ākṣepa (inclusion) and pratikṣepa (exclusion) are used in arguments concerning property and property-possessor (dharma / dharmin), which are included among linguistic practices such as the universal (sāmānya). In the arguments about property and property-possessor, the distinction between property and property-possessor, a linguistic problem, is explained by turning it into problems such as that of the appearance of conceptual awareness (pratibhāsa), the speaker’s intention, the effect of daily action (vyavahāra), and so on.
In examples of ākṣepa concerned with property and property-possessor, it is stated that words expressing property-possessor include other distinctions, while words expressing property do not. But in the examples of pratikṣepa concerned with property and property-possessor, it is stated that words expressing property exclude other distinctions, while words expressing property-possessor do not. Therefore ākṣepa means negation of pratikṣepa, apratikṣepa, and the negation of ākṣepa means pratikṣepa.
