Built in the Western Xia period, Cave 3 of the Yulin Grottoes now has twelve sutra illustrations or mandalas of both exoteric and esoteric Buddhism. This particular mandala is painted on the upper west of the south wall. Affiliating to the tantra belief, the Pacaraksā Mandala combines various deities from the Mahapratisara,Mahasahasrapramardani, Mahamayuri, Mahasitavati, Mahamantranusarini, which was popular in the Tibetan region of China and in Nepal. Relevant Buddhist sutras took shape around 1100 CE and are recorded in both Vajravali and Nispannayogavali written by Abhayakaragupta, a great master of late esoteric Buddhism in India. The discovery and interpretation of this mandala is of significant reference value for studying the origins of esoteric Buddhist images in the Western Xia caves at Dunhuang.
