Glossary

"I salute thee, O Buddha, who removes doubts of all living beings everywhere,
and who has attained the great enlightenment
and every kind of knowledge through the three-fold body."

-- Asaṅga: Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra

A

abhidhyāna [abhijjhā] covetousness. Abhidhyāna is identical with greed, that is, lobha. It forms the eighth link of the unwholesome courses of action.

AS I. 200, 205-206, 363, 366; III. 535. MN. Dhātuvibhaṅga, Vattha.

abhijñā [abhiññā] super knowledge. The term is used to denote the supernatural powers gained after attainment of dhyāna. It also covers the four steps to psychic powers (ṛddhi). Originally the term alluded to certain conditions which lead to knowledge, wisdom and nirvāṇa. The fivefold abhijñā is

(1) divine eye, that is, power to see things far and near, earthly and extraterrestrial beings. It also covers knowledge about death and reappearance of beings, and knowledge regarding the beings who are passing away or undergoing retribution according to their good or evil actions;

(2) divine ear, that is, power to hear sounds which are far, those which are near and those which can be heard only by the celestial beings;
(3) reminiscence of past births;
(4) thought reading;
(5) knowledge of the termination of defilements.

According to some scholars, there is one more fold, namely, the power of miracles.

AS. I. 144, 294. MN. Mahāsaḷāyatanika, Nandakovāda. MST. XVIII. 137. SD. V. 176.

abhisamaya [abhisamaya] realisation of truth. Abhisamaya is often associated with dharma -- dhammābhisamaya. Abhisamaya denotes the perfect understanding of the Four Noble Truths by the stream-enterer. Dhammābhisamaya means complete grasp of dharma.

AS. I. 44-45, 154.

acintya [acintiya] unthinkable. Acintya is that which is beyond the thinking faculty of human beings, the thing they should not brood over due to the limits of the human thought, and also because such thinking does not lead to enlightenment. The four unthinkables are

(1) the sphere of a Buddha (buddha-viṣaya) [buddha visaya],
(2) meditative absorptions (dhyāna viṣaya) [jhāna visaya],
(3) karma result (karma-vipāka) [kamma vipāka],
(4) brooding over the world such as its beginning, whether it is eternal or finite, etc.(lokacintā), [lokacintā].

adhimokṣa [adhimokkha] resolve, determination. Adhimokṣa is the unshakeable adherence to the theory of nullity. It is one of the mental concomitants (cetasika-s) which is associated with both good or bad citta-s. It decides whether or not to do a particular thing, and also whether to do good or evil, for example, whether to observe precepts or whether to act upon prohibited things.

CMA. II. 82; VII. 281.

adhiṣṭhāna [adhiṭṭhāna] foundation. Adhiṣṭhāna is one of the supernatural powers and perfections of an Arhat. The four foundations for an Arhat are wisdom (prajñā), truthfulness (satya), generosity (tyāga), and peace (upaśama).

AS. Nidāna. 33, 86, 115. DN. Saṅgīti.

ādibrahmacarya śīla [ādibrahmacariyaka sīla] prime morality with regard to purity. Ādibrahmacarya śīla is morality leading to the highest purity. It comprises right speech, right bodily action and right livelihood. A householder is also expected to observe the ādibrahmacarya śīla.

Ādi-Buddha The primordial Buddha that exists as in the Māhāyāna. He is known as Ādinātha, the first Lord and Svayaṃbhū, the self-existent. The Avalokiteśvara Guṇakāraṇḍa Vyūha, a Mahāyāna Sūtra, narrates the account of creation of the world. It maintains that Ādi-Buddha existed even before the beginning of the universe. He appeared and created the world through meditation. He is the source of the Universal Mind and Divine ideation. Dhyānī-Buddha-s are the personifications of creative power of the Ādi-Buddha.

āhāra [āhāra] nutriment. The literal meaning of āhāra is

food. However āhāra also has a figurative meaning which denotes four kinds of nutriments, namely, material food, nutriment of contact, nutriment of volitions, and nutriment of consciousness.

     The material food is the nourishment of men, made into balls (kavala) [kabala] and mixed with liquid. It is associated with rūpa. Nutriment of contact results in pleasure, pain or indifference. Nutriment of volitions means the thoughts that penetrate into mind and continue to be there. Nutriment of volitions ensues birth. Nutriment of consciousness includes all that is subject to consciousness. It produces name and form at the moment of conception. All kinds of food produce birth and sorrow.

AS. I. 258. CMA. VII. 275; VIII. 319. DN. Saṅgīti. MP. IV. 230. SN. Āhāra.

Akṣobhya Buddha One of the five primordial Buddha-s. Akṣobhya means unshakeable. The distinct marks of Akṣobhya Buddha are golden complexion, left hand in the shape of a fist and right hand touching the ground. The Akṣobhya Vyūha describes the Land of Buddha Akṣobhya.

SG. XI. 37-38; XVII. 103.

akuśala-dharmāḥ [akusala-dhammā] unwholesome factors. The three evil roots of greed, hatred and delusion are termed as akuśalamūla. They lead to demeritorious mental actions of covetousness or desire to possess what belongs to others, ill will and wrong views. Defilements (akuśala kleśa) exist in the realm of desire. Dhammasaṅgaṇī classifies the factors of consciousness into wholesome (kuśala), unwholesome (akuśala) and neutral. In the Abhidhamma fourteen unwholesome mental factors (akuśala cetasika-s) are enumerated. They are

(1) delusion,	(2) shamelessness,
(3) lack of dread,	(4) restlessness,

(5) greed,	(6) wrong-view,
(7) pride,	(8) hatred,
(9) jealousy,	(10) selfishness,
(11) worry,	(12) sloth,
(13) torpor,	(14) sceptical doubt.

     The mind itself knows an object. On account of good or evil mental factors it becomes good or evil. The akuśala cetasika-s contaminate mind. They are present in the stream of consciousness of every being.

     In the Milindapañhapāḷi King Milinda asks Nāgasena, "Is the consequence the same to him who does good and to him who does evil, or is there any difference in the two cases?" Nāgasena's reply reminds us of a well-known statement in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (IV. 4.5). "By doing good the self becomes good, and by doing evil it becomes evil." Nāgasena says, "There is a difference, O king, between good (kuśala) and evil (akuśala). Good works have a happy result, and lead to heaven and evil works have an unhappy result, and lead to hell... He who does wrong, O king, comes to feel remorse, and acknowledges his evil doing."

     Akusala dhamma-s, unwholesome dharma-s, namely, greed (lobha), hatred (doṣa), and delusion (moha), entirely rule over the kingdom of all classes of unwholesome consciousness. They give birth to lower passions. For example, delusion gives birth to shamelessness (āhrīkya), unscrupulousness (anapatrāpya) and restlessness (auddhatya).

     The Buddha has thrown light on akuśala dharma-s while giving a sermon on nirvāṇa. He says, "Anger and malevolence, envy and jealousy, niggardliness and avarice, hypocrisy, deceit and arrogance, infatuation and indolence are akuśala dharma-s." The Buddhist tradition further

elaborates the consequences of the akuśala dharma-s. A deluded person is certainly devoid of the discriminating faculty and so is not ashamed of unworthy actions. Unworthy actions lead him to restlessness. Greed deprives a person of right views. It further results in self-conceit (māna). Hatred gives birth to envy (īrṣyā) which is further followed by egotism (mātsarya) which invites worry (kaukṛtya).

     The consequences of akusala dhamma-s giving rise to further undesired vices may be compared to those mentioned in the Gītā. "To the men thinking about the objects of the senses arises attachment towards them, from attachment longing, and from longing arises anger. From anger comes delusion; and from delusion, loss of memory, due to ruin of discrimination, he perishes."

     The Buddhist tradition says that the three unwholesome factors -- hatred, greed and delusion -- bring in the undesired result (aniṣṭa -vipāka) and take one to hell.

AS. I. 121, 366. CMA. I. 32-37; II. 83-85, 94-95. DN. Saṅgīti. MN. Dhātuvibhaṅga, Sallekha, Sammādiṭṭhi.

ālaya-vijñāna [ - ] store of consciousness. Ālaya-vijñāna means universal consciousness. According to the Vijñānavāda school, the universal consciousness is repository of all mental ideas. It is pure in its nature. It appears to be divided into innumerable separate consciousnesses on account of unconscious tendencies of individual consciousness. The apparent distinctions of subjects and objects are due to ignorance.

     Ālaya-vijñāna breaks up into innumerable individual consciousness with their different spheres of experiences. When the unconscious tendencies which are an outcome of the previous karma-s are extinguished, the individual loses his separateness and is reabsorbed into the ocean of

pure consciousness. The unchanging aspect of ālaya-vijñāna is known as Tathatā. However the ālaya-vijñāna is characterised by changefulness.

     According to Vasubandhu, the ālaya-vijñāna evolves in a continuous stream-like the water of a river. Husan Tsang says, "As the river struck by the wind gives birth to waves without its flow being interrupted, so the ālaya-vijñāna flows thus like a river without interruption." The Laṅkāvatāra describes the relation between ālaya and vijñāna by using the analogy of ocean and waves dancing, raised by the wind of passions.

Laṅkāvatāra 272, 278, 314-315, 320. MST. I. 7; XI. 63, 66.

Amitābha The Buddha in the Pure Land. According to the notion of the enjoyment-body of the Buddha (saṃbhogakāya), as in the Mahāyāna, in the infinite universe there are Buddha-s who teach in the Pure Lands and the Buddha-fields. Amitābha is one of them whose Pure Land is known as Sukhāvatī. There he produces infinite (amita) light (ābhā), hence his name Amitābha. He is also known as Amitāyus because the span of his life is immeasurable. In Japanese he is known as Amida.

     By means of prayers or vows (praṇidhāna) in a former life Amitābha was born again in the world of Sukhāvatī. The larger and the smaller Sukhāvatī Vyūha Sūtra-s and the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra describe the Pure Land of Buddha Amitābha. It is the vow of Amitābha to bring to his Pure Land after death any sentient being who sincerely calls his name. He who constantly contemplates on Amitābha; he who turns his thoughts to enlightenment, and he who devoutly prays to be born in the Sukhāvatī, to him Amitābha appears in the hours of death and the devotee beholds the light again in the Land of Bliss. Those who think of Amitābha with a single thought are born in the

Pure Land of Amitābha, where there is no darkness, and Amitābha is continuously extolled.

MBA. II. 181-187; III. 195. SG. XVI. 95.

ānantarya karma [ānantarika kamma] action with immediate destiny. The actions that follow retribution without delay are known as ānantaryāṇi karmāṇi. They are deadly sins; five heinous actions (Pañcānantaryāṇi karmāṇi), namely, killing of mother, father, or an Arhat; wounding a Buddha; and causing dissension in the Order of monks.

anātman [anattā] the no-soul doctrine. It can also be described as egolessness, impersonality, non-being, non-ego, non-self or soullessness. Anattā is one of the three characteristics of existence. According to the eternal soul theory, apart from the elements that form a body, the body consists of a soul which is imperishable and eternal. The material theory rejects the existence of such an entity. According to Buddhism both these theories are obstacles to salvation.

     The so-called 'I' or soul or self is a combination of changing forces. These forces are made up of body or matter (rūpaskandha), sensation (vedanāskandha), perception (saṃjñāskandha), mental formations (saṃskāraskandha), and consciousness (vijñānaskandha). The forces are always in a flux of momentary change and never the same for two consecutive moments. Nothing that can be considered as a self-existing real ego-entity or soul or any other substance is found either within or outside the psycho-physical phenomena.

     It is said, "Whether the Tathāgata-s appear or not, O Bhikkhu-s, it remains a fact, an established principle, a natural law that all conditioned things are transient (anitya), sorrowful (duḥkha), and everything is soulless (anātman).

This fact the Tathāgata realises, understands and when he has realised and understood it, announces, teaches, proclaims, establishes, discloses, analyses, and makes it clear, that all conditioned things are transient, sorrowful and that everything is soulless."

     Prajñā or wisdom denotes the right understanding of the nature of the world, that is, transiency, sorrowfulness, and soullessness. The no-soul doctrine connotes the non-substantiality of elements (dharma-s). The elements exist only by means of the union of conditions. There is no eternal and unchangeable substance in them. The idea that five aggregates constitute a unitary self or ego is wrong and it is derived from deep rooted clinging.

     In the Anattalakkhanṇa Sutta the Buddha said, "The body, O Bhikkhu-s, is not the self. Feeling is not the self. Perception is not the self. The mental formations are not the self. And neither consciousness is the self. Knowing this, O Bhikkhu-s, the disciple gives no value to the body, or feeling, or perception or mental formations, or consciousness. Thus he becomes free from passions and is liberated." He says, "Then, O Bhikkhu-s, body, whether past, present or future, personal or external, coarse or subtle, low or high, far or near, should be understood by right knowledge in its real nature. This is not mine, this I am not, this is not my soul." 'na me so attā'.

     The anātman, that is, no-soul doctrine of the Buddha occurs in the Mahāyāna School as śūnyatā or voidness. Nāgārjuna elaborated the concept of śūnyatā. A soul is considered as avyākṛta and forbidden as a topic of discussion.

DP. XX. 7. MK. XVIII. 6. MN. Bhaddekaratta, Chachakka, Cūḷasaccaka, Cūḷasīhanāda, Mahāpuṇṇama, Sabbāsava, Sallekha. MST. XI. 66-67; XIII. 83. SN. Anatta, Anattalakkhaṇa.

anitya [anicca] impermanent, anityatā [aniccatā] impermanency. Impermanence is one of the basic teachings of the Buddha. It is the first characteristic of existence, the basic feature of all conditioned phenomena. Impermanency can be defined as the rising, passing and changing of things or their disappearance. "Everything in the world arises, changes and perishes; nothing remains constant for even a single moment." Whatever is subject to origination, is subject to cessation. In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta the Buddha says, "All formations are impermanent." [sabbe saṅkhārā aniccā.]

     The world is a passing phenomenon. The body is compared to a lump of foam, the feelings are compared to a water bubble, the perception to a mirage, volitional activities to a plantain tree; and consciousness to jugglery. The existence as such is Dependent Origination. Everything is subject to change, transformation and destruction. The entire phenomenon is in flux except Nirvāṇa, which is unconditioned and not a formation (asaṃskṛta) [asaṃkhata]. Insight into impermanence leads the aspirant to deliverance. The contemplation of impermanence leads to the conditionless deliverance (animitta-vimokṣa).

DN. Mahāparinibbāna, Mahāsudassana. DP. XX. 5. MN. Nandakovāda. SN. Anicca, Dukkha, Paccaya, Parinibbāna, Puṇṇama, Vakkali, Soṇa.

anusmṛti [anussati] mindfulness. Anusmṛti is a list of subjects which a Buddhist monk should always keep in mind. Mindfulness is of six kinds

(1) mindfulness of the Buddha (buddhānusmṛti),
(2) of his doctrine (dharmānusmṛti),
(3) of his community of noble disciples (saṅghānusmṛti),
(4) of morality (śīlānusmṛti),
(5) of liberality (tyāgānusmṛti),
(6) of heavenly beings (devatānusmṛti).

     The Buddhist tradition also mentions mindfulness of death (maraṇasmṛti), of body (kāyagatānusmṛti), of breathing (ānāpānasmṛti), and of peace (upaśamānusmṛti).

AS. I. 174. CMA. IX. 333. DN. Saṅgīti. SG. VII. 22-24. VM. III. 89.

anuttarā samyak-saṃbodhi [anuttarā sammā saṃbodhi] unexcelled perfect enlightenment. A samyak saṃbuddha is one who through his own efforts and wisdom understands dharma, and out of compassion proclaims it to the world in order to uplift others from saṃsāra and to lead them to liberation. The samyak-saṃbodhi is the state pertaining to a samyak-saṃbuddha. The samyak saṃbuddha makes others understand āryasatyāni, namely, suffering, cause of suffering, cessation of suffering and, way to cessation of suffering as he has known them. The śrāvaka-s and the pratyekabuddha-s attain enlightenment respectively known as śrāvakabodhi and pratyekabodhi. Śrāvakabodhi, pratyekabodhi and samyaksaṃbodhi are the three modes of enlightenment. The Bodhisattva-s opt for the anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi which does not have anything further and beyond it.

     In his first discourse the Buddha has marked the characteristic of the anuttarā samyak saṃbodhi. He says, "I acknowledged that I had attained the incomparable supreme enlightenment only when the absolute true intuitive knowledge regarding truths became clear to me."

DN. Mahāparinibbāna, Pāsādika.

Arhat [Arahat] a worthy saint. Arhathood is the goal in Theravādin practice in contrast with Bodhisattvahood in the Mahāyāna practice. Ari means enemy. The Sanskrit root han means to kill. An Arhat has slain the enemies which are in the form of greed, anger and delusion. Hence

he is known as Arhat. The stage of an Arhat is the fourth stage of holiness. It is the highest rank attained by
śrāvaka-s.

     An Arhat has attained enlightenment and is no longer subject to the cycle of birth and death. However, there is a difference between a Buddha and an Arhat. A Buddha is omniscient; he possesses perfect knowledge of everything, while the Arhat does not possess complete knowledge. A Buddha is a promulgator of the true doctrine that is dharma while an Arhat is only a follower of the same. As far as emancipation (vimukti) is concerned, the Theravādin contention is that there is no difference between a Buddha and an Arhat in this regard.

     The characteristics of an Arhat are defined by the Buddha when he says, "Herein O Bhikkhu-s, a bhikkhu is an Arhat, one who has destroyed the defilements, who has lived the life, done what was to be done, laid aside the burden, who has attained his goal, who has destroyed the fetters of existence, who... is delivered. His five sense organs still remain and as he is not devoid of them, he undergoes the pleasant and the unpleasant experience. That destruction of his attachment, hatred and delusion is called 'the element of nibbāna with the basis still remaining'. He has overcome all doubts about the triratna, namely, the Buddha, his teachings and the Order; non-existence of soul; and the law of causation. Though little, he recites the sacred texts, but acts in accordance with the teachings, refrains from lust, hatred and ignorance, truly knowing, with mind well freed, clinging to naught here and hereafter, he shares the fruits of the Holy Life. Though emancipated, it is because of the karmic force which produced his birth, the life-span is still not exhausted; he is alive without adding fresh karma."

     An Arhat is called aśaikṣa, that is, he who does not

undergo training. He has attained perfection in higher moral, mind and wisdom training. Thus he is no more subject to training. An anāgāmī and an Arhat who has developed rūpa and ārūpya dhyāna-s, that is, concentrations in the realm of form and formless realm, can experience the Nibbānic bliss uninterruptedly as long as seven days even in this life.

     In Chinese Buddhism the Ch'an school venerated the Arhat-s as beings corresponding to the mind of Ch'an. They were attributed magical powers.

AS. Nidāna. 61; I. 90, 349-350, 356; III. 501, 522. CMA. I. 68; IX. 362. DP. VII. 1-10. DN. Janavasabha, Soṇadaṇḍa. MN. Cūḷasaccka, Gaṇakamoggallāna, Mūlapariyāya. SN. Arahanta, Arahattapañhā, Dhanañjānī, Dutiyaarahanta.

artha [attha] true substance, the meaning of the doctrine. The concept of artha comprises

(1) the meaning of words,
(2) everything dependent on conditions,
(3) karma-result,
(4) functional consciousness, and
(5) nirvāṇa.

The reflection on these principles is known as the analytical knowledge of meaning.

ārya [ariya] a noble disciple. The three kinds of noble disciples are the ordinary ones (prakṛtiśrāvaka-s), the great ones (mahāśrāvaka-s), and the eminent leading disciples (agraśrāvaka-s). The ordinary disciple (prakṛtiśrāvaka) gains āryahood when he attains spiritual maturity. He takes his own time to attain the goal. The (eighty) great disciples (mahāśrāvaka-s) attained perfection in a period of a hundred thousand world-cycles. The number of these disciples varies in scriptures. The disciples who attained

perfection in a period of one asaṃkhyeya kalpa and a hundred thousand world cycles are known as the eminent leading disciples, (agraśrāvaka-s). Śāriputra [Sāriputta] and Maudgalyāyana [Moggallāna] are the two eminent disciples of the Buddha. Kāśyapa, Upāli, Ānanda, Anuruddha and Kātyāyana are prominent mahāśrāvaka-s.

AS. III. 476-477. MN. Araṇavibhaṅga, Sabbāsava.

āryasatyāni [ariya-saccāni] Noble Truths. The entire teachings of Buddhism are contained in what are known as Noble Truths. These are four in number:

(1) the truth of suffering,
(2) the truth of the origin of suffering,
(3) the truth of the cessation of suffering, and
(4) the truth of the Eightfold Path leading to the cessation of suffering.

These truths are known as āryasatyāni.

     All forms of existence are subject to suffering. Craving is the cause of suffering. Extinction of craving leads to the extinction of suffering including rebirth. The Eightfold Path is the means for achieving the goal of cessation of suffering.

     The etymological meaning of the word duḥkha is that which is difficult (dus) to endure for the organs (kha). Kha also means empty. Thus, duḥkha means the emptiness of the world which is despicable (dus).

     The first and the second Truths are mundane and the third is supramundane. An aspirant should understand the first Truth; he should give up the second, namely, craving, the origin of suffering; he should realise the third, that is, the truth of cessation of suffering; and should cultivate the fourth, that is, the Eightfold Path.

     The teaching of the Four Noble Truths does not indicate

that the nature of Buddhism is pessimistic. On the other hand it is meant for relieving mankind from sorrow. Just as, in order to treat sickness, a physician has to make correct diagnosis to find out the cause of the sickness, in the same way the Buddha searched for the cause of suffering and found the way for its removal. Hence he is described as the great physician who cures all pains and sufferings. It is through relationship of the cause and effect that he could think of the cessation of suffering.

(1) The Truth of Suffering (duḥkha-satya) [dukkha -sacca].

All life is suffering. All are subject to birth (jāti), old age (jarā), disease (vyādhi), and death (maraṇa). Nobody can escape from these sufferings. There is suffering due to separation from what we like, contact with what we dislike, unfulfilled aims, and clinging to the five aggregates (skandha-s).

     That suffering which is due to injury or a bodily sensation is physical suffering. That which is due to separation from possessions is mental suffering. All phenomena of existence are subject to change. The impermanent nature of the states of existence is itself a cause of suffering. This kind is known as phenomenological suffering. Suffering is also due to alteration, that is, an experience may appear to be pleasant in the beginning but may end in sorrow.

     The Buddha said, "This is, O Bhikkhu-s, the Noble Truth of Suffering; Birth is suffering; ageing is suffering; sickness is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow and lamentation, pain, grief and despair are suffering; association with the unpleasant condition is suffering; separation from the beloved one or pleasant condition is suffering; not to get what one wants is suffering, in brief, the five aggregates of attachment are suffering."

(2) The Truth of the Origin of Suffering (duḥkha-samudaya satya) [dukkha-samudaya sacca]

In the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta the Buddha says, "The cause of suffering is craving that finds pleasure now here, now there." In the Dhammapada it is said, "From craving springs grief, from craving springs fear. He who is free from craving has neither grief nor fear." Craving is compared to a river. It is the cause of rebirth and evils in life. The once-returner (sakṛdāgāmī) attenuates the gross forms of craving, the non-returner (anāgāmī) eradicates them and the Arhat is free from even the subtle forms of craving.

     Craving is of three kinds -- craving for sensual pleasures, for existence and for non-existence. The craving for sensuous desires arises from the objects of senses. Gratification of sensual desires gives happiness to the seeker. However it is a fleeting experience and even its recollection is temporary. Craving for existence is the desire for the superior realms of forms, and craving for non-existence is attachment for the formless realms.

     The Buddha said, "This is, O Bhikkhu-s, the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering: it is this craving which produces rebirth, bound up with pleasure and greed. It finds fresh delight now here and now there."

(3) The Truth of Cessation of Suffering (duḥkha-nirodha satya) [dukkha nirodha sacca]

The Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta defines this truth as eradication of all forms of craving. Extinction of suffering presupposes extinction of greed, of anger and of ignorance. This state of extinction is known as nirvāṇa. It can be experienced after renouncing attachment to the external world. The Noble Eightfold Path is the way to realise the truth of the extinction of suffering.

     The Buddha said, "This is, O Bhikkhu-s, the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering. It is complete cessation of craving, giving it up, renouncing it, release from it, detachment from it."

(4) The Truth of the Eightfold Path leading to the cessation of suffering (mārga satya) [magga sacca] [dukkha-nirodhagāminī paṭipadā-sacca]

The Theravāda school lays emphasis on the Noble Eightfold Path (ārya aṣṭāṅgika mārga) [ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga] as the basic teaching whereas the Mahāyāna tradition emphasises the perfections -- pāramitā-s. The Buddha says, "What, O monks, is the Noble Truth of the path leading to the extinction of suffering? It is the Noble Eightfold Path that leads to the extinction of suffering."

     The path consists of the following factors

(1) right view (samyag dṛṣṭi) [sammā diṭṭhi],
(2) right resolution (samyak saṃkalpa) [sammā saṅkappa],
(3) right speech (samyag vācā) [sammā vācā],
(4) right action (samyak karmānta) [sammā kammanta],
(5) right livelihood (samyag ājīva) [sammā ājīva],
(6) right effort (samyag vyāyāma) [sammā vāyāmā],
(7) right mindfulness (samyak smṛti) [sammā sati],
(8) right concentration (samyak samādhi) [sammā samādhi].

     These factors are classified under three heads, namely, śīla, that is, morality; prajñā, that is, wisdom, and samādhi, that is, concentration. Right speech, action and livelihood constitute śīla. Right view and resolution constitute prajñā. Right effort, mindfulness and concentration constitute samādhi.

Right View

It is the understanding of the Four Noble Truths and the formula of the Dependent Origination. It comprises penetrative insight into the reality, that is, the emptiness.

     The Buddha says, "What, O Bhikkhu-s, is Right View? To understand suffering, to understand the origination of suffering, to understand extinction of suffering, to understand the Path leading to the extinction of suffering; this is called Right View."

Right Resolution

It implies pure mind which is free from desire, ill will, hatred and cruelty. Instead it is endowed with harmlessness, compassion, benevolence and loving kindness. Actions are latent in thoughts. Evil thoughts defile an individual, and good thoughts elevate him. Thus, one should cherish right thoughts. Right resolution has twofold function, namely, to eliminate wrong ideas and to harbour good thoughts which, in due course, would lead the aspirant to nirvāṇa.

     The Buddha says, "What, O Bhikkhu-s, is Right Resolution? Thoughts free from sensuous desire [nekkhama saṅkappa], thoughts free from ill will [abyāpāda saṅkappa], thoughts free from cruelty [avihimsā saṅkappa]: this is called Right Resolution".

Right Speech

It is the expression of right thoughts. In other words, right thoughts lead to right speech. Right speech means refraining from lying, slander, harsh words, and frivolous talk. The speech should be true, sweet, agreeable and beneficial to others.

     The Buddha says, "What, O Bhikkhu-s, is Right Speech? It is avoidance of telling lies, avoidance of slandering, avoidance of hateful abusive language, avoidance of

frivolous talk or useless chat. Bhikkhu-s, avoidance of these four evil speeches is called Right Speech."

Right Action

It means abstinence from killing, from stealing and from unlawful sexual contacts. These three evils are rooted in craving, ignorance and anger. Removal of these unwholesome roots eliminates germs of evil actions.

     The Buddha says, "What, O Bhikkhu-s, is Right Action? It is the avoidance of killing, avoidance of stealing, and avoidance of sexual misconduct or misuse of the senses. O Bhikkhu-s, avoidance of these three physical evils is called Right Action."

Right Livelihood

A lay disciple should not earn his livelihood from the following kinds of trade, namely, trading in arms, in human-beings, in flesh, in intoxicating drinks and poison.

     The Buddha says, "What, O Bhikkhu-s, is Right Livelihood? The noble disciple avoiding a wrong way of living, getting his means of living by a right way. This is called Right Livelihood."

Right Effort

Right Effort is fourfold, namely,

• to prevent the arising of evil that is not yet arisen,
• to discard the evil that has already arisen,
• to develop the arising of good,
• to promote the good that has already arisen, to increase it and to bring it to perfection.

     The Buddha says, "What, O Bhikkhu-s, is Right Effort? Here in this teaching, O Bhikkhu-s, a Bhikkhu rouses his mind to avoid evil unwholesome things not yet arisen, to overcome evil unwholesome things already arisen, to

arouse wholesome things not yet arisen, to maintain wholesome things already arisen and not to let them disappear, but to bring them to growth, to maturity and to the full perfection of development. And he makes effort, puts forth his energy, exerts his mind and strives. This is called Right Effort."

Right Mindfulness

It is to contemplate on body, feelings, thoughts and mind-objects after doing away with covetousness and grief. It eradicates wrong notions regarding desirability of happiness, permanence and soul.

     The Buddha says, "What, O Bhikkhu-s, is Right Mindfulness? Here, in this teaching, a bhikkhu dwells contemplating the body (material qualities) in the body, ardently, clearly comprehending, and mindfully removing covetousness and grief in the world (of corporeality); he dwells contemplating the feeling in the feelings, he dwells contemplating the consciousness in the consciousness; he dwells contemplating the mental objects [dhamma] in the mental objects [dhamma], ardently, clearly comprehending, and mindful, removing covetousness and grief in the world (of five aggregates). This is called Right Mindfulness."

Right Concentration

It is the one-pointedness of mind. It quietens the mind and makes it clear like a mirror. A concentrated mind perceives the true nature of things. The aspirant free from sensual objects and evils enters the first, the second, the third, and the fourth, dhyāna, that is, absorption.

     The Buddha says, "What, O Bhikkhu-s, is Right Concentration? Here, in this teaching, the Bhikkhu, being detached from all sensual objects, detached from other unwholesome things, enters into the first stage of

absorption [jhāna], which is accompanied by thought conception [vitakka] and discursive thinking [vicāra], is filled with rapture [pīti] and joy [sukha], born of detachment from evil thoughts.

     After subsiding of thought conception and discursive thinking, and by gaining inner tranquillity and one-pointedness of the mind, the aspirant enters into a stage of the second absorption, which is born of concentration and filled with rapture and joy.

     After fading away of rapture, the aspirant dwells in equanimity, attentiveness and is clearly conscious; he experiences in his person that feeling of which the noble ones say 'Happy is the man of equanimity and one-pointedness of the mind' -- thus he enters the third absorption.

     After giving up of the physical pleasure and pain, and through the disappearance of mental happiness and grief, the aspirant enters into a state beyond pleasure and pain, into the fourth absorption, which is purified by equanimity [upekkhā] and one-pointedness. This is Right Concentration."

     The Buddha says, "O monks, it is through not understanding, not penetrating Four Noble Truths that we have run so long, wandered so long in this round of existence (saṃsāra) both you and I. But when these Four Noble Truths, O monks, are understood and penetrated, rooted out is the craving for existence (bhava-taṇhā), destroyed is that which leads to renewed becoming, and there is no more coming to be."

DN. Mahāli, Mahāparinibbāna, Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna, Mahāsīhanāda. Flower. VIII. 276-281. MK. XXIV. 40. MN. Bhayabherava, Cūḷadukkhakkhandha, Cūḷasaccaka, Cūḷavedalla, Kinti, Mahāhatthipadopama, Mahāsaccaka, Sallekha, Sāmagāma, Sammādiṭṭhi. SN. Avijjā,

Dhammacakkappavattana, Dukkhatā, Jāṇussoṇi, Kimatthiya, Kumbha, Sāriputta, Sīlasampadādi, Upaḍḍha, Vibhaṅga, Yonisomanasikāra.

āsrava [āsava] cankers, outflows and influxes. The three āsrava-s are sensuous desire (kāmāsrava), existence (bhavāsrava), and ignorance (avidyāsrava). The outflow of wrong views (dṛṣṭi-āsrava) is added to the list. These four āsrava-s are mentioned as floods (ogha) and yokes (yoga). In the Buddhist context, here yoga refers to that which binds a human being to saṃsāra as against the Hindu connotation of uniting with the Ultimate Reality. The outflow of wrong views is extinguished when one enters the path or stream. When one enters the path of non-return, the outflow of sensuous desire is extinguished. When one enters the path of an Arhat and attains the state of an Arhat the outflow of existence and ignorance are extinguished. The epithet kṣīṇāsrava, namely, one whose outflows are uprooted is used for an Arhat.

AS. III. 498-501. CMA. VIII. 265. DN. Mahāparinibbāna, Sāmaññaphala, Saṅgīti, Soṇadaṇḍa. MN. Bhayabherava, Dvedhāvitakka, Mahāsaccka, Sabbāsava, Sallekha, Sammādiṭṭhi. SN. Āsava, Āsavapañhā, Bhikkhu, Saṃyojanappahānādi, Virāga.

aṣṭalokadharmāḥ [aṭṭhalokadhammā] eight worldly conditions. Every man has to face four desirable and four undesirable conditions during his lifetime. The eight worldly conditions are gain [lābha] and loss [alābha], fame [yasa] and infamy [ayasa], praise [pasaṃsā] and blame [nindā], happiness [sukha] and pain [dukkha]. Man has to treat them alike with a balanced frame of mind. He should understand that the conditions are inevitable in life and that he has to confront them with undisturbed mind. He should not rejoice when there is a gain nor should he grieve when he is in loss. Even when deprived of worldly

possessions, he should be calm and quiet. He, to whom fame and infamy, praise and censure, pleasure and pain are equal, is free from attachment.

     According to the Bhagavadgītā, he who is the same in honour and dishonour, cold and heat, pleasure and pain, censure and praise is an ideal devotee (XII.18-19). One should treat pain and pleasure, gain and loss, victory and defeat alike. (II.38)

AN. Dutiyalokadhamma, Paṭhamalokadhamma. DN. Dasuttara, Saṅgīti.

aṣṭāṅgika mithyā mārga [aṭṭhangika micchā magga] the eightfold wrong path. The factors conducive to the unwholesome states of consciousness are known as the eightfold wrong path. The eightfold wrong path consists of

(1) wrong view (mithyā dṛṣṭi) [micchā diṭṭhi],
(2) wrong thought ( mithyā saṅkalpa) [micchā sankappa],
(3) wrong speech (mithyā vācā) [micchā vācā],
(4) wrong action (mithyā karmānta) [micchā kammanta],
(5) wrong livelihood (mithyā ājīva) [micchā ājīva],
(6) wrong effort (mithyā vyāyāma) [micchā vāyāma],
(7) wrong mindfulness (mithyā smṛti) [micchā sati],
(8) wrong concentration (mithyā samādhi) [micchā samādhi].

AS. I. 366. DN. Dasuttara. SN. Aṭṭhaṅgika, Dutiyapaṭipadā, Kukkuṭārāma, Paṭhama Kukkuṭārāma, Paṭhamapaṭipadā.

aṣṭa-vimokṣāḥ [aṭṭha-vimokkhā] eight meditations for emancipation. Vimokṣa means emancipation. There are eight kinds of meditation practised to attain eight types of emancipation. These are

(1) to meditate on the impurity of one's own body for the sake of removing passions,
(2) to meditate on the impurity of external objects in order to strengthen emancipation from passions,
(3) to meditate on the purity of external objects in order to overcome passions,
(4) to meditate on the boundless consciousness in order to overcome the attachment to corporeality-perceptions. Through this meditation one reaches the sphere of the unbound space and abides therein.
(5) to meditate on the boundless consciousness in order to remove attachment to void. Through this meditation one reaches the sphere of the unbounded consciousness and abides therein.
(6) to meditate on the non-existence in order to remove attachment to consciousness. Through this meditation one reaches the sphere of nothingness and abides therein.
(7) to meditate on the state of neither thought nor non-thought in order to remove attachment to non-existence. Through this meditation one reaches the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception and abides therein.
(8) putting an end to all thoughts and perceptions and dwelling in the state of total extinction. By doing so one reaches the extinction of perception and thoughts.

AS. I. 301-303. AN. Vimokkha. DN. Mahānidāna, Poṭṭhapāda, Saṅgīti. MN. Saḷāyatana. MST. XVIII.

avabhāsa [obhāsa] effulgence of light, aura. Avabhāsa refers to the rays of light emitted from the body during deep insight (vipaśyanā).

AN. Obhāsa. KH. Mahākassapatherapadānam. MP. II. 37; IV. 25; V. 307.

Avalokiteśvara literally, 'the Lord who looks down' with infinite pity on all living-beings. Avalokiteśvara is the deity of the Pure Land School of the Mahāyāna Buddhism. He is a Bodhisattva, one amongst the three Pure Land sages, the other two being Buddha Amitābha, and the Bodhisattva Mahāsthāmaprāpta. Avalokiteśvara arose from the spirit of the Ādi-Buddha, that is, the first Buddha. He is a cosmic-being. All gods have come out of his body. Avalokiteśvara attained enlightenment through the faculty of hearing.

     In the early iconography Avalokiteśvara is represented in the male form. He bears the head of a horse, sometimes a horse-head crown, eleven heads, a thousand eyes and a thousand arms. He dwells on a mountain of small white flowers -- the symbol of purity. He holds the Cintāmaṇi -- the gem with which he removes the sorrows of the sentient beings and saves them from the saṃsāra. All beings are his own innermost nature and hence all sufferings are his sufferings. The prominent feature of Avalokiteśvara is compassion. He personifies compassion. He attends to the cries of the distressed. He is the protector of the afflicted. He assumes thirty forms, all being manifestations of the transformed body except the first, that is, the Buddha.

     Avalokiteśvara is eulogised in the Saddharma-Puṇḍarīka Sūtra. Avalokiteśvara-Guṇakāraṇḍa-Vyūha popularly known as Kāraṇḍa Vyūha, a Mahāyāna Sūtra, is also an eulogy of Avalokiteśvara. In the East Asian imagery, Avalokiteśvara is mentioned by using feminine pronouns. In Chinese Buddhism, he is projected as the Mother Goddess of mercy and in Tibet, as the saviour of the Land of Snow. The female form bears a small Buddha on the crown.

MBA. II. 181-184; III. 195.

āveṇikadharmāḥ [āveṇikadhammā] extraordinary

qualities of a Buddha. There are eighteen extraordinary qualities of a Buddha. They are as follows

(1) knowledge of all things of the past,
(2) knowledge of all things of the present,
(3) knowledge of all things of the future,
(4) propriety of actions of the body,
(5) propriety of actions of speech,
(6) propriety of actions of thought,
(7) firmness of intuition,
(8) firmness of mindfulness,
(9) firmness of concentration,
(10) firmness of energy,
(11) firmness of emancipation,
(12) firmness of wisdom,
(13) freedom from fickleness,
(14) freedom from noisiness,
(15) freedom from perplexity,
(16) freedom from hastiness,
(17) freedom from heedlessness, and,
(18) freedom from inconsiderateness.

MST. XVIII. 137. SD. II. 88. Uttaratantra. III. 11-13.

avyākṛta-dharmāḥ [avyākata-dhammā] the inexplicables. Avyākṛta means unexplained. The Buddha kept silence on the following metaphysical and speculative questions; hence these matters are known as avyākṛta-dharma-s. The questions are

(1) Is the universe eternal?
(2) Is it not eternal?
(3) Is the universe finite?

(4) Is it infinite?
(5) Is soul the same as the body?
(6) Is soul different from the body?
(7) Does the Tathāgata exist after death?
(8) Does he not exist after death?
(9) Does he also exist and not exist after death?
(10) Does he neither exist nor not exist after death?

AS. I. 121. MN. Cūḷamālukya. MP. IV. 146.

B

bala [bala] powers necessary for spiritual progress. These are five in number, namely, faith (śraddhā) [saddhā] for the progress on spiritual path, endeavour (vīrya) [viriya], mindfulness (smṛti) [sati], concentration (samādhi) [samādhi], and wisdom (prajñā) [paññā]. These powers are named as bala because they are unshakeable by their opposites, namely, non-belief, laziness, forgetfulness, distraction, and ignorance.

AS. I. 173, 225-226, 231, 242, 253. CMA. VII. 274, 280. DN. Mahāparinibbāna. LV. IV. 25. MN. Kinti, Sāmagāma. MST. XI. 64; XVI. 103; XVIII. 138. VM. IV. 104.

bhāvanā [bhāvanā] Mental development through meditation and concentration. Bhāvanā is a mental development. It is of two kinds: with regard to tranquillity (śamatha bhāvanā) [samatha bhāvanā], that is, concentration (samādhi), and with regard to the intuitive insight (vipaśyanā bhāvanā).

     Śamatha means tranquillity. Śamatha is mostly compounded with contemplation or insight. Śamatha pertains to the concentration of the formless realms. Vipaśyanā pertains mostly to the realms of desire and form.

Tranquillity is the undefiled peaceful state of mind. It ushers in favourable rebirth, happiness and purity of mind. The five hindrances vanish and then arises the Vipaśyanā, the intuitive insight into the impermanence, misery, and impersonality of the existence. In the fourth dhyāna of the realm of form, tranquillity and intuitive insight, both are blended. They bring in the four sublime states of brahma-vihāra and the wisdom of enlightenment.

AS. I. 134, 268. CMA. IX. 329-330. MST. XI. 57; XIV 93-94; XVIII. 140. SN. Samathavipassanā.

bhāvanā-bala [bhāvanā-bala] power of self culture. Bhāvanā-bala is the power to increase the effect of meditation. It comprises development of the factors of enlightenment (bodhyaṅga), namely, mindfulness, investigation of the doctrine, energy, rapture, tranquillity, concentration and equanimity. It inculcates self-discipline, self-control, self-elevation and self-illumination.

AS. I. 147, 541.

bhikṣu [bhikkhu] monk. A bhikṣu is a fully ordained male member of saṅgha who should be fully acquainted with 227 precepts prescribed for a monk. According to the Dharmaguptaka tradition the number of precepts is 250. The minimum age prescribed for a bhikṣu is twenty years. The three categories of bhikṣu-s are

(1) sthavira-bhikṣu-s [therabhikkhu-s],
(2) madhyama-bhikṣu-s [majjhimabhikkhu-s], and
(3) nava-bhikṣu-s [navabhikkhu-s].

     Those who have spent ten or more years in the Order belong to the first category; those who have spent five to nine years belong to the second category; and those who are less than five years belong to the third category.

     When an individual obtains ordination, that is,

Upasaṃpadā, he is called a bhikṣu. A bhikṣu has to observe twenty-two rules. The prominent rules are: he should abstain from stealing, killing and pretence to possessing extra-ordinary powers. He must observe celibacy. Failure in observing these vows, leads to the fall of a bhikṣu and thereafter he ceases to be a bhikṣu.

     The rules laid down in the Vinaya Piṭaka govern the way of life of a bhikṣu. A bhikṣu has to keep himself away from material gains and all kinds of worldly pleasures. He is supposed to lead an ideal life which is simple and pure. He should possess the qualities of simplicity, modesty, morality, energy, compassion, harmlessness, endurance, devotion, knowledge, wisdom, mindfulness, and selfless service.

     A bhikṣu should practise morality of four kinds, namely, (1) the fundamental code (prātimokṣa saṃvara śīla) [pāṭimokkha saṃvara sīla], (2) control over the sense-organs (indriya saṃvara śīla) [indriya saṃvara sīla], (3) purity of livelihood (ājīva pariśuddhi śīla) [ājīva pārisuddhi sīla], and (4) morality regarding the necessities of life (pratyayasanniśrita śīla) [paccaya sannissita sīla].

     The Buddha had proclaimed that bhikṣu-s would attain Arhatship if they are not fond of, do not delight in, do not engage themselves in business, gossiping, sleeping and indulging in society matters. In order to attain Arhatship, the bhikṣu should neither possess nor should be tempted by base desires. He should also not remain in the company of evil friends or fall prey to evil.

     The Mahāvagga and Cūḷavagga of the Vinaya Piṭaka describe the duties of bhikṣu-s and novices. They are

(1) duty as a guest. The visiting bhikṣu should take off his footwear, etc.
(2) duty as a host. The host bhikṣu should receive a visiting bhikṣu and should take care of his bowl and

robe. If the visiting bhikṣu is senior to him, he should also offer him water for washing feet. These duties depend on the seniority of a monk.
(3) duty before going on a journey. A bhikṣu should close the doors and windows of the monastery, he should seek permission of other residents before he takes on a journey.
(4) duty to appreciate good deeds of others. A bhikṣu should not fail to appreciate good deeds performed by others.
(5) duty in refectory. A bhikṣu should perform the assigned duties in the refectory.
(6) duty regarding alms.
(7) duties in a monastery in a forest such as orientation of the place with reference to stars, providing necessities such as drinking water, etc.
(8) duties regarding living quarters such as cleaning them, etc.
(9) duties regarding bathroom.
(10) duties about the toilet.
(11) duty towards one's own preceptor.
(12) duty of a mentor towards bhikṣu-s and novices.
(13) duty towards mentors. A disciple should get up early and offer his mentor water for washing; he should also serve him breakfast; he should clean the sleeping quarters.
(14) duty of a teacher towards one's disciple.

A bhikṣu is free to leave the Order, if he so desires.

AN. Dutiyasekha, Paṭhamasekha. DN. Pāsādika. MN. Cūḷasaccaka, Dhammadāyāda, Mahāgopālaka, Vattha. SN. Bhikkhu. Vinaya. Mahāvagga. I .2.4-10; I. 3.1-7.

bhikṣuṇī [bhikkhunī] an ordained woman. The Order of bhikṣuṇī came into existence due to Mahā Prajāpatī Gautamī, the aunt and foster mother of Siddhārtha. She became a bhikṣuṇī. It was Ānanda who requested the Buddha to grant permission to start the Order of the bhikṣuṇī-s. They could enter the path and could enjoy the fruition. The minimum age to receive full ordination for a maiden was twenty years whereas for a married woman it could be below twenty years.

AN. Bhikkhuni, Gotamī.

bodhi [bodhi] enlightenment. Budh means to awaken, to know. Bodhi means the action of awakening or the enlightenment. The slumber is due to defilements; through bodhi one comprehends the Four Noble Truths. Bodhi touches both the mind and the body. Hence it is called as sparśana [phusana].

MST. XI. 69-70. Vinaya. Mahāvagga. I. 1.1.

Bodhicitta [ - ] Bodhi mind. Mind set on enlightenment is known as bodhicitta. It has two aspects; the determination to attain Buddhahood and aspiration to save the sentient beings from suffering.

     The ultimate goal of the Buddhist practice is to transcend the cycle of birth and death, and to attain the Buddhahood, that is, enlightenment. The Mahāyāna School considers the bodhicitta as a prerequisite to the Buddhahood. The Bodhisattva path begins with a series of meditations which result into arousing the awakening-mind (bodhicitta). The aspirant makes up his mind to become a Buddha as he is moved by the sufferings of the sentient beings. When he puts himself to discipline to become Buddha, the stage is called as bodhicittotpāda.

     The Bodhicitta involves two stages. The first stage

denotes the resolve of the aspirant to attain the Buddhahood. The second is the application of the ideal, that is, the practice of the perfections (pāramitā-s). The first stage is known as bodhi praṇidhi citta, and the second as bodhi prasthāna citta.

     Bodhicitta is intent on wisdom (prajñā) and compassion (karuṇā). Wisdom takes the aspirant beyond existence and compassion makes his existence in the world meaningful, the refuge of all those who are afflicted.

BC. III. 38-45; IV. 46-51. SD. V. 194.

bodhimaṇḍa [bodhimaṇḍa] the spot under the Bodhi tree where the Buddha sat and attained enlightenment.

AS. Nidāna. 78, 119. LV. XIX. 239; XX. 240-247. MST. XVI. 100.

bodhipākṣikāḥ dharmāḥ [bodhipakkhiyā dhammā] aids to enlightenment. Bodhipākṣika-dharma consists of thirty-seven factors which are considered as aids to enlightenment. These factors include

• four methods of mindfulness (smṛtyupasthāna),
• four right efforts (samyakpradhāna or prahāṇa),
• four bases of psychic potency (ṛddhipāda),
• five faculties (indriya),
• five powers (bala),
• seven factors of enlightenment (bodhyaṅga), and
• eight constituents of the Noble Path (mārga).

  AS. Nidāna. 36. MST. XVIII. 135-139.

Bodhisattva [Bodhisatta] the aspirant for enlightenment. Bodhisattva refers to one who is enlightened and aspires for the enlightenment of others. In early Buddhism the term Bodhisattva was used to identify Siddhārtha Gautama in

his previous existences. In the Mahāyāna, the term received a new connotation and was used for one aspiring for perfect enlightenment to Buddhahood. The term is used for realised beings such as Avalokiteśvara or Samantabhadra, and also for one who aspires for the attainment of Buddhahood and devotes himself to altruistic deeds.

     The main characteristics of a Bodhisattva are wisdom and compassion. Every Bodhisattva practises ten transcendental virtues, that is, pāramitā-s. According to the Mahāyāna, the liberation of all sentient-beings is the ultimate goal of spiritual aspiration in contrast with the goal of individual liberation in the Hīnayāna. A Bodhisattva prefers to undergo the cycle of birth and death in order to liberate the living beings from misery.

     A Bodhisattva aspires for Supreme Enlightenment and Buddhahood for himself and for all those who suffer.

     Bodhisattva-s are future Buddha-s. "They relieve others from suffering with their own good deeds and willingly suffer consequences of others' actions."

     The two kinds of Bodhisattva-s are earthly Bodhisattva-s and transcendental Bodhisattva-s. Earthly Bodhisattva-s are those who are endowed with compassion, love and altruism and strive towards the attainment of enlightenment. Those who have attained Buddhahood but have not yet entered complete nirvāṇa are known as transcendental Bodhisattva-s. They possess perfect wisdom and are no more bound by Saṃsāra. However they appear in various forms to save all sentient beings.

     Prominent among the transcendental Bodhisattva-s are Avalokiteśvara, Mañjuśrī, Kṣitigarbha, Mahāsthāmaprāpta, Samantabhadra and Maitreya.

     In Outlines of Mahāyāna Buddhism D. T. Suzuki quotes from A Treatise on the Transcendentality of the Bodhicitta, "Thus the essential nature of all Bodhisattva-s is a great

essential heart (mahā-karuṇā citta) and all sentient beings constitute the object of his love. They look on all beings as though victims going to the slaughter. With their heart full of compassion, they work for the weal and happiness of all beings. They seek no delight in pursuing their own salvation while their brothers and sisters are steeped in misery. Instead they prefer to be the saviour." Thus Bodhisattvahood has two aspects, namely, self-perfection through sacrifice for others, and emancipation.

     Stories of the Bodhisattva Śākyamuni before he was born as Siddhārtha giving accounts of his compassion, love and self-sacrifice are known as Jātaka-s. The ideal of the Arhat was replaced by the ideal of Bodhisattva in the Mahāyāna. The Arhat-s are depicted as elderly monks. They are shaven-headed; they wear yellow robes. They hold a begging bowl or a staff. The Bodhisattva-s appear as young princes adorned with gems and tiaras.

BC. I. 1-21; III. 38-45; IV. 46-51. MST. III. 12; VIII. 30; XX-XXI. 168-180.

Bodhisattvabhūmi [-] stages of Bodhisattva practice. Bodhisattvabhūmi-s are different stages of spiritual progress through which a Bodhisattva passes from the stages of stream-enterer to the final attainment, that is, Buddhahood. They are prescribed for a Bodhisattva when he is tantamount to a Buddha. After practising them he becomes a samyak sambuddha. The ten stages (daśabhūmi-s) are important from the point of view of spiritual advancement. They are introduced in an ascending order. They can be called as the mile stones in the pilgrimage of a Bodhisattva. Though all perfections are practised in all stages, the pāramitā that predominates a particular stage is linked with that stage. The enumerations of the ten stages are symbolic in nature and are found

variously. The Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra describes them as follows.

(1) Muditā -- joy, delight. In this stage the aspirant rejoices in the realisation of partial aspect of truth. He is possessed of joy because he has cherished the goal of enlightenment, renounced all worldly wealth, and offered himself to practice of perfections as well as to the service of others.

(2) Vimalā -- purity, freedom from defilements. In this stage through the practice of śīla pāramitā the Bodhisattva becomes pure in morality of speech and conduct. He abandons the akuśala karma-s. This stage resembles the stages of srotāpanna and sakṛdāgāmī of the Theravādin-s.

(3) Prabhākarī -- emission of light. The Bodhisattva becomes effulgent due to his realisation of the truths of impermanence and no-self, and through his resolve to save others from suffering, which is a result of practising four meditations and mystic trances.

(4) Arciṣmatī -- glowing. In this stage flame of wisdom burns mundane desires. All elements of evil and illusion are consumed through the practice of thirty-seven allies of enlightenment [bodhipākṣika- dharma-s].

(5) Durjayā -- difficult to conquer, invincibility, overcoming difficulties. In this stage the illusion of ignorance is overcome. The Bodhisattva realises that all formations (saṃskāra-s) are empty. He attains the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths. He considers the absolute and relative knowledge as one.

(6) Abhimukhī -- facing forward, revealing oneself, sign of supreme wisdom. In this stage supreme wisdom begins to appear because the Bodhisattva acquires the knowledge of the Dependent Origination. He

reflects on the essence of dharma-s and realises the truth. He practises the wisdom perfection and forms an attitude of compassion towards those who wander in saṃsāra.

(7) Dūraṅgamā -- hard to measure, far reaching. The Dūraṅgamābhūmi transcends the two vehicles. In this stage the Bodhisattva has practised ten perfections, four saṃgrahavastu-s namely truth, renunciation, tranquillity and wisdom. He engages himself in the practice of the skilful means (upāyakauśalya) to attain the goal. He ceaselessly contemplates on emptiness, signlessness and aimlessness, the three aspects of Nirvāṇa. Though he himself has reached the highest sphere of spirituality, he does not hesitate to practise rites and rituals for the sake of common people.

(8) Acalā -- becoming immovable, immovability. Becoming immovable (acalā-bhūmi) means abiding in the truth of the middle way and so being unperturbed. When he knows that everything partakes of suchness (tathatā) the BodhisattvaBodhisattva reaches a stage from which he does not retrogress. In this stage actions are spontaneous and innocent, they can be described as a sport. Whatever he wills, is done.

(9) Sādhumatī -- possessing goodness, preaching of dharma, all penetrating wisdom. In this stage the enlightened teaches the doctrine in order to benefit the sentient beings. He has the knowledge of disciples, of the self-enlightened, the Bodhisattva-s andand of the Tathāgata. He possesses the four pratisaṃvid-sfour pratisaṃvid-s, namely, knowledge of dharma, of its meaning, expression, and presence of mind. Hence he is capable of teaching the doctrine to people.

(10) Dharmameghā-Dharma-cloud. All sentient beings are benefitted without discrimination just as a cloud rains

on all things without distinction. In this stage the enlightened one personifies love, sympathy and compassion. Whatever he does, benefits all living-beings. He becomes omniscient and pours the nectar of dharma on all. Thousands of rays emitting from the body of the Tathāgata-s as though shower coronation on him as samyak saṃbuddha. Hence thisthis stage is also known as abhiṣeka-bhūmi.

     The Vimalā stage resembles the srotāpanna and sakṛdāgāmī stages of the Theravādin-s. The Prabhākarī, Arciṣmatī, Durjayā, Abhimukhī resemble the stage of an Arhat. The Dūraṅgamā, Acalā, Sādhumatī, and Dharmameghā pertain to the Mahāyāna alone. The eighth stage acalā is endowed with an element of mysticism. The element is also reflected in other stages.

     The Mahāvastu contains a different enumeration. According to the Mahāvastu, the ten stages are: difficult to enter, (Durārohā), fastening (Baddhamānā), adorned with flowers (Puṣpamaṇḍitā), beautiful (Rucirā), expansion of the heart (Cittavistarā), lovely (Rūpavatī), difficult to conquer (Durjayā), ascertainment of birth (Janmanideśa), installation as crown prince (Yauvarājya) and coronation (Abhiṣeka).

     One more list comprises the following stages: setting the mind towards enlightenment, beginner, practitioner, born in a high family, perfection of means, endowed with virtues in previous births, absence of moral fall, becoming a prince, installation as crown prince and anointment as Buddha-the king.

     The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra enlists the following stages: the stage of dry knowledge; of noble race; of stream- enterer; of right view; of diminishing defilements; elimination of all defilements in the realm of desire; elimination of all defilements in the kāma, rūpa and

arūpaloka; the pratyekabuddha stage; the bodhisattva stage, and Buddha stage.

     The term bhūmi also denotes 52 levels of Bodhisattva practice.

Flower. XV. 394-400. MST. XX-XXI. 173-175.

bodhyaṅgāni [bojjhaṅgā] factors of enlightenment. Bodhyaṅga is a compound word consisting of bodhi, that is, enlightenment and aṅga, that is, limb or factor. The limbs or factors are known thus as they lead one to enlightenment. There are seven bodhyaṅga-s, namely, smṛti, dharmavicaya, vīrya, prīti, praśrabdhi, samādhi, and upekṣā.

(1) smṛti [sati] mindfulness

Smṛti is one of the five spiritual faculties or powers (bala), the first factor in the seven factors of Enlightenment (bodhyaṅga) and the seventh constituent of the Eightfold Path (aṣṭāṅgika mārga). Smṛti is wakefulness of mind, intentness of mind, and mindfulness. It lifts the mind above unwholesome factors. Smṛti means remembering meritorious and pious deeds, to listen attentively to discourses, and to concentrate deeply on the object of meditation. In other words, the concept of smṛti implies mindfulness concerning wholesome acts and matters.

     Smṛti has an association with wholesome consciousness produced by karma. Craving, anger and ignorance arise in the absence of mindfulness and they give way to unawareness, forgetfulness and confusion. When mindfulness, the important factor in the Insight Meditation prevails, wisdom that differentiates between mind and matter, that is, nāma and rūpa, leads the meditator to realisation. The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta is a discourse that elaborates on the constant mindfulness with regard to body, feelings, thought and mind-objects. Wrong conception

regarding desirability, happiness, permanence and soul are uprooted through the practice of mindfulness.

     Apramāda, that is, vigilance is the other name for smṛti. It is necessary in all walks of life. Before entering Parinirvāṇa, the Buddha said to his disciples, "Be always vigilant and watchful in every act."

(2) dharmavicaya [dhammavicaya] investigation of the Law

Dharmavicaya is the second constituent of the seven factors of enlightenment (bodhyaṅga). It denotes the analysis of Dharma, discrimination between true and false, and investigation of the Law. It means bodily and mental phenomena (nāma-rūpa-dharma) which the mindfulness projects before the investigating mind. In the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta it is stated that 'Whenever endowed with mindfulness, he wisely investigates, examines and ponders over the Law, he knows well that he has attained and is developing the dharmavicaya factor of enlightenment'.

(3) vīrya [viriya] effort, power, energy, exertion

Vīrya is one of the five controlling faculties (indriya), one of the five powers (bala), one of the seven factors of enlightenment (bodhyaṅga) and is identical with right effort of the Noble Eightfold Path (aṣṭāṅga mārga). It stands for strenuous and sustained effort to overcome laziness. It stands for the right endeavour to attain dhyāna. Vīrya in the above context does not stand for physical strength. It signifies strength of character and the persistent effort for the well-being of others. In the absence of sustained efforts in practising Insight Meditation, craving creeps in and the meditator comes under its influence. Right effort known as vīryabala is, thus, required to overcome laziness and deviation from dhyāna.

     Accompanied with perseverance and persistence, Vīrya

supports the mind and the mental constituents which arise during the practice of Insight Meditation. Hence it is an important factor in Insight Meditation. It supresses the arising of evil states which have arisen; stimulates good states and sustains those which have already arisen. Inertness and inactivity are the opposites of vīrya. The Buddha said, "Nothing is impossible to a person who is possessed of vīrya."

(4) prīti [pīti] rapture

     Prīti is the fourth among the seven factors of enlightenment (bodhyaṅga). It is mental factor that belongs to the group of mental formations. Prīti means rapture, the feeling of delight and contentment in dharma. It reflects in physical sensations.

     Prīti is linked with both the wholesome and unwholesome states of consciousness, and even with the neutral states. The rapture attained through objects which appear agreeable to the senses belongs to the state of unwholesome consciousness. That which is obtained through sublime work belongs to the wholesome state of consciousness.

     Prīti is experienced during the first and the second dhyāna. When the meditator concentrates on the object of meditation constantly, prīti arises in him. It removes anger, strengthens concentration and brings in tranquillity.

     There are five kinds of prīti: that of a slight degree, the momentary rapture, that which resembles a flood, the floating joy, and that which overflows. They are described as follows: Khuddikā Pīti is the pleasure that causes the flesh to creep. Khaṇikā Pīti is just like a flash of lightning. Okkantikā Pīti is a kind of overwhelming joy or a flood of joy resembling breakers on a seashore. Ubbegā Pīti is transporting joy. It enables one to float in air just as a lump

 

of cotton is carried by the wind. Pharaṇā Pīti is the suffusing joy. It is like a flood that overflows small tanks and ponds. According to the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, "Whenever in him who is steadfast in energy arises super-sensuous rapture, he knows well that he has attained and developed the Prīti factor of enlightenment."

(5) praśrabdhi [passaddhi] calmness, serenity, tranquillity

An Arhat is always tranquil as he refrains from anger and excitement. In concentration he experiences bliss of the mind and body which is known as praśrabdhi. "Calm is the mind of an Arhat, calm is speech, calm is his action, who knows rightly, is fully freed, perfectly peaceful and equipoised." Eradication of defilements leads one to tranquillity. Forty subjects of meditation have been prescribed in order to develop tranquillity.

     As the fifth factor of enlightenment tranquillity is closely associated with prīti. Tranquillity is the state of physical as well as mental equipoise experienced by the meditator which follows the experience of prīti. In the fourth dhyāna a balance between tranquillity and insight is maintained and the meditator attains tranquillity, that is, nirvāṇa.

(6) samādhi [samādhi] concentration. (For details, see note on samādhi, and Right Concentration.)

(7) upekṣā [upekkhā] equanimity

Upekṣā is the state of mind which maintains a balance while experiencing joy or sorrow, fame or infamy, gain or loss. Equanimity takes a person beyond love and hatred. One should meditate upon love, compassion, joy and equanimity. Equanimity is the seventh constituent of enlightenment. It helps one to get rid of attachment and aversion. It can be precisely described as the state which

is devoid of pain and pleasure, the state in which no preference is shown to one thing or the other. Its property is indifference.

     As one of the bodhyaṅga-s it means one and the same attitude of mind towards all thoughts.

     Upekṣā is of ten kinds.

(1) ṣaḍaṅgopekṣā -- neither pleasure nor pain from the objects of six-sense organs,
(2) brahmavihāropekṣā -- equanimity in extending love to all,
(3) bodhyaṅgopekṣā -- equanimity with regard to thoughts,
(4) vīryopekṣā -- the same intensity of force of determination,
(5) saṃskāropekṣā -- equanimity with regard to all kinds of wisdom essential for the attainment of the paths,
(6) vedanopekṣā -- equanimity with regard to feelings,
(7) vidarśanopekṣā -- the state of equanimity towards what has been seen,
(8) tatramadhyasthopekṣā -- practising all modes of upekṣā,
(9) dhyānopekṣā -- equanimity with regard to the impermanency of objects, and
(10) pariśuddhi-upekṣā -- equanimity with regard to everything that takes one to emancipation.

     In the Bhagavadgītā (2.38) it is stated that if one performs one's duty looking with an equal eye on pleasure and pain, gain and loss, victory and defeat, one incurs no sin.

AS. I. 222, 332, 404. CMA. II. 86; VII. 281-282. DN. Dasuttara, Mahāparinibbāna, Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna, Sampasādanīya, Saṅgīti. LV. IV. 24-25. MN.

Araṇavibhaṅga, Satipaṭṭhāna, Subhāsava. SG. VII. 22-24. SN. Akusalarāsi, Bhikkhunupassaya, Kuṇḍaliya, Mettāsahagata, Nirodha, Paṭhamakusala, Vattha. VM. III. 89; IV. 115-117, 129-132.

brahmacarya [brahmacariya] pure life, chastity. Chastity is abstinence from sexual relation. A monk has to observe chastity while the lay-devotee who observes the eight moral precepts has to observe it as a vow.

AN. Brahmacariya.DN. Mahāgovinda, Mahāparinibbāna. SN. Dutiyabrahmacariya, Paṭhamabrahmacariya.

brahmavihāra [brahmavihāra] divine abodes. The term Brahmavihāra connotes four varieties of philanthropy. Good and evil forces are dormant in human nature. In order to walk on the spiritual path man has to keep himself away from vices such as anger, violence, and hatred. They should be substituted by loving kindness, compassion and altruistic joy, respectively. Association with unpleasant, and separation from pleasant perturb mind of a human being. Equanimity keeps the mind balanced in favourable as well as adverse conditions. These four sublime qualities, namely, loving kindness (maitrī) [mettā], compassion (karuṇā), altruistic joy (muditā) and equanimity (upekṣā) [upekkhā] are collectively known as Brahmavihāra. They are also known as boundless states because they are to be extended to one and all [appamañña]. "The monk with a mind full of loving kindness, compassion, altruistic joy and equanimity pervading first in one direction, then the second one, then the third one, then the fourth one, and also above, below and all around; and everywhere identifying himself with all, he is pervading the whole world with mind full of loving kindness, compassion, altrulistic joy and equanimity with mind wide, developed, unbounded, free from hate and ill will."

     It will be interesting to know that in his Yoga-Sūtra (1.33) Patañjali states, "The mind becomes clarified by cultivating attitudes of loving kindness (maitrī), compassion (karuṇā), gladness (muditā) and indifference (upekṣā), towards happiness, misery, virtue and vice respectively."

(1) maitrī [mettā] loving kindness

Maitrī means aspiration for the well-being and happiness of all living-beings including friends and foes, feeble or strong, tall, medium, short, big or small, seen or unseen, those who are far and those who are near, those who are born and those who are yet to be born. The thoughts of boundless love should pervade the whole world, above, below and across. There should be no place for hatred or for enmity. As a mother would protect her child at the risk of her life one should cultivate a boundless loving heart for everybody. Identification of oneself with all living-beings is the culminating point of loving kindness.

(See also under pāramitā.)

(2) karuṇā [karuṇā] compassion

Karuṇā is the desire to remove the afflictions of the afflicted. The heart that melts due to sufferings of others is said to be compassionate. One should be compassionate to the virtuous and the vile. The Buddha was compassionate to Aṅgulimāla who was a murderer before he took refuge in him. The Vyāghrī Jātaka is a story of the Bodhisattva who sacrificed his life to save the life of a starving tigress and her cubs.

(3) muditā [muditā] altruistic joy

Muditā is a feeling of 'sharing' the happiness of others. It keeps one away from jealousy. It cultivates a positive attitude that accepts the progress of the other.

(4) upekṣā [upekkhā] equanimity

In the context of brahmavihāra, upekṣā means equal love towards all. (For detailed note on upekṣā, see under bodhyaṅgāni.)

AS. I. 133, 280, 289, 304-309. AVK. VI. 52. DN. Tevijja. MA. II. 89-90; IX. 336-337. MN. Saḷāyatanavibhaṅga. MST. XVII. 119. SD. V. 194. SN. Mettāsahagata. VM. III. 89.

Buddha [Buddha] the enlightened one. The term Buddha is derived from the root budh 'to wake up', 'to know'. Hence Buddha literally means 'one who is awakened', 'the enlightened one'. Buddha is an enlightened person who is absolved from all existence by perfect knowledge of truth, and who reveals to the world the method of obtaining the Nirvāṇa. He is distinguished from a śrāvaka, a Pratyekabuddha for his outstanding characteristic that he is the one who has attained 'the supreme or the perfect enlightenment' (anuttarā samyak saṃbodhi). He is of cosmic significance. He has many dimensions of embodiment. He brings others to enlightenment. Hence the term Buddha is a title. The scriptures have mentioned Buddha-s in the past and future. Dīpaṅkara, Koṇḍañña, Maṅgala, Sumana, Revata, Sobhita, Anomadassī, Paduma, Nārada, Padamuttara, Sumedha, Sujāta, Piyadassī, Atthadassī, Dhammadassī, Siddhattha, Tissa, Phussa, Vipassī, Sikhī, Vessabhū, Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana, and Kassapa were the Buddha-s in the past. Maitreya is the future Buddha. Śākyamuni, Amitābha, Bhaiṣajyaguru and Virocana or Vairocana are the prominent Buddha-s in the Mahāyāna.

AS. Nidānakathā-vaṇṇanā. 91-110.Flower II. 167; V. 217; VI. 254-269. JK. Dūrenidāna. 74-103.

Buddha, The (See under Siddhārtha Gautama in the Introduction.)

Buddha, The; Epithets of the Buddha. The epithets of the Buddha indicate his intrinsic virtues that are recited when a homage is paid to him. They are

(1) worthy of respect (Arhat),
(2) one who is perfectly enlightened (samyaksaṃbuddha),
(3) endowed with knowledge and good conduct (vidyācaraṇa-saṃpanna),
(4) gone in a perfect way (sugata),
(5) one who is acquainted with the world (lokavid),
(6) unsurpassed (anuttara),
(7) controller of human-beings (puruṣadamya-sārathi),
(8) teacher of Gods and human-beings (śāstā devamanuṣyāṇām),
(9) an enlightened one (Buddha),
(10) blessed one (bhagavat).

(1) Arhat -- worthy of respect

Arhat means he who is worthy of respect. The term also connotes 'one who has slain the enemy of passion'. In early Buddhism the Buddha was called Arhat but the Mahāyāna School contracted the meaning of Arhat and the term was applied to the saints of Theravāda.

(2) samyaksaṃbuddha -- one who is perfectly enlightened The Buddha's enlightenment is superior to that of a śrāvaka or pratyekabuddha. It is unsurpassed and perfect enlightenment.

(3) vidyācaraṇasaṃpanna -- endowed with knowledge and good conduct

The Buddha possesses knowledge (vidyā) and he translates it into action (caraṇa).

(4) sugata -- gone in a perfect way

The Buddha is called sugata because he goes to the other shore of saṃsāra so perfectly that he does not come back again. He attains the perfect enlightenment. His path is good, harmless and that which avoids two extremes, namely, self-mortification and indulgence in material gains.

(5) lokavid -- one who is acquainted with the world

The Buddha was acquainted with the world of living beings and inanimate world. He had penetrated in all aspects of life; hence he knew the nature of the world. He knew that the world is conceptual. He could see that the living beings had sufferings, he could see the cause, the eradication of suffering and the way to it. As he was acquainted with the world, he could enlighten living beings.

(6) anuttara -- unsurpassed

The Buddha is matchless and unsurpassed in perfect enlightenment.

(7) puruṣadamya sārathi -- controller of human beings

Sārathi means a leader and puruṣadamya means he who controls human beings. He is the leader because he leads human beings towards emancipation. He controls them through the Eightfold Noble Path.

(8) śāstā devamanuṣyāṇām -- teacher of Gods and human beings

The Buddha-s are born in the world of human beings in order to emancipate them. Tradition says that the Buddha taught the Abhidhamma to gods in the celestial realm of the thirty-three gods (trayastriṃśat) [tāvatiṃsa] headed by

King Śakra [Sakka].

(9) buddha -- an enlightened one

The Buddha, the omniscient is enlightened and enlightens others. The Buddha means 'the awakened', one who has overcome the state of stupor.

(10) bhagavat -- blessed one

Bhagavat means one who is the possessor of fortune (bhaga). The Buddha was fortunate because he could conquer evil, he had the knowledge of the doctrine; he could expound it to others and he had unsurpassed wisdom.

AN. Paṭhamavera. DN. Cakkavatti, Lohicca. MN. Vattha. MV. IV. 27, 31, 276. SD. XII. 340.

The Buddha is also known as Tathāgata. Tathāgata means one who has gone in the same way as the earlier Buddha-s did; or one who has come in the same way as the earlier Buddha-s did. Śākyamuni had six predecessors. They were known as Vipassī, Sikhī, Vessabhū, Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana, and Kassapa. Śākyamuni was the seventh Buddha. The Buddha comes from truth (tathatā) and enters the same. A Tathāgata appears in the world. He teaches the dharma that is beautiful in the beginning, beautiful in the middle, and beautiful in the end.

     The earlier meaning of Tathāgata was one who has followed the path of the ideal people. Later on the meaning of the term was confined to the Buddha-s. Tathāgata is the specific title of Mahā-Vairocana; he is always mentioned as Buddha.

Gaṇḍavyūha. 322. MST. IX. 41.

Buddha, The ten powers [dasa balāni] of the Buddha. The ten powers of a Buddha are

(1) faculty of distinguishing between the right and the wrong,
(2) knowledge of the past, present, and future karma-s of all sentient beings,
(3) knowledge of the superiority or inferiority of the powers and faculties of all sentient beings,
(4) knowledge of desires and inclinations of all sentient beings,
(5) knowledge of all stages of absorption (dhyāna), emancipation (vimukti), and concentration (samādhi),
(6) knowledge of all former births of oneself and of all sentient beings,
(7) knowledge of future existences,
(8) knowledge of the different levels of existence,
(9) knowledge of the transmigratory state of all sentient beings and the courses of karma they follow, and
(10) knowledge of one's own enlightenment and eradication of all evil passions.

Uttaratantra. II. 5-6.

Buddha-Gayā [Bodha Gayā] The place where Śākyamuni attained Enlightenment. Buddha-Gayā is near the bank of river Nairañjanā in modern Bihar. Earlier the place was known as Urūbilvavana or Uruvelā. It is one of the most sacred places according to Buddhism.

C

caitya [cetiya] pagoda, temple, edifice. Caitya is a kind of tumulus raised over remains of the dead. The Sanskrit root ci means to heap together. The word caitya is a synonym for dāgoba, stūpa or tope. A relic structure in an assembly hall is known as caitya. The rock hewn temples found in India are also covered by the term caitya. Caitya is a

religious term whereas dāgoba, stūpa or tope are architectural connotations. It is an object of veneration. The term stūpa stands for those structures which represent relics of the Buddha or the Arhat-s. Otherwise they are called dāgoba. The stūpa is erected in the open air. Stones or bricks are used in its structure. Inside the caitya or stūpa a casket made of silver, gold, stone, or earthenware is placed. The ashes, fragments of bones or
the teeth or nails of the deceased are installed in it.

     The caitya-s are of four types: paribhoga, dhātu, dharma and uddesika caitya-s. Paribhoga caitya-s include the personal belongings of the Buddha such as water-strainer, girdle, robes and alms-bowl. The edifices where any of these are enshrined are also known as caitya-s. The term is also used for the Bodhi tree, umbrella, the footprint of the Buddha, in short, things connected with the Buddha. Dhātu caitya-s denote the Buddha’s relics and the stūpa-s or edifices where the relics are enshrined. Dharma caitya-s denote palm leaves or books, etc., where the Buddha’s teachings appear. The stūpa-s or edifices where these are enshrined are also known as dharma caitya-s. The images and statues of the Buddha are known as uddesika caitya-s.

SG. VIII. 26.

cakṣu [cakkhu] an eye, vision. Five kinds of vision (eyes) are mentioned in the Buddhist tradition.

(1) the human or physical vision, māṃsa-cakṣu [maṃsa-cakkhu];
(2) the deva vision: divya-cakṣu [dibba-cakkhu], that is, the unlimited vision or the vision that sees everything in the hidden worlds;
(3) the wisdom vision: prajñā-cakṣu [paññā-cakkhu], the vision of perfect understanding, that is, the

knowledge of all that can be known and knowing that all things are unreal;
(4) the dharma vision: dharma-cakṣu [dhamma-cakkhu] that is the vision that enters everything to see the truth that makes men free from the cycle of birth and death;
(5) the Buddha vision: buddha cakṣu [buddha cakkhu], that is, the vision of a Buddha; the omniscient that can comprehend the spiritual state of a human being.

     There is also a mention of the vision of all-round knowledge -- the samanta cakṣu [samanta-cakkhu]. It is the vision of the perfected one, mostly of the Tathāgata. Except the physical vision, others can be said to be spiritual qualities.

AS. II. 422-423. Flower. I. 104. LV. VIII. 67. MN. Ākaṅkheyya, Bhayabherava, Mahāgosiṅga, Mahāsaccaka, Mahāsāropama. MV. 118-120. VC. XVIII. 135. VM. III. 90.

carita [carita] nature, temperament. Carita denotes the intrinsic nature of a human being. The six types of temperament are

(1) greedy temperament [rāga-carita],
(2) hateful temperament [doṣa-carita],
(3) dull temperament [moha-carita],
(4) devout temperament [śraddhā-carita],
(5) intellectual temperament [buddhi-carita],
(6) discursive temperament [vitarka-carita].

The six temperaments are combined with one another. The speculative temperament (dṛṣṭi carita) is added to them.

AS. I. 309. CMA. IX. 330-331. VM. III. 82-88.

catvāra ṛddhipādāḥ [cattāro iddhipādā] the psychic

powers. The ṛddhipāda-s are considered as the four means of attaining the power of mind over matter, which are to be cultivated, developed, mastered, experienced, practised and acquired. "As guides they indicate the road to power connected therewith; and they form, by way of preparation, the way to the power constituting the fruition of the path." The ṛddhipādāḥ are the four psychic powers, namely, will (chanda), effort (vīrya), mind (citta), investigation and wisdom (mīmāṃsā), all necessary to attain dhyāna.

CMA. VII. 280. DN. Mahāparinibbāna. MN. Kinti, Sāmagāma. MST. XVIII. 136-137.

citta [citta] mind. Mind is the key concept in Buddhist philosophy. It is the sixth sense. It is the receiver of the phenomena. Manas, that is, mind does not have a material form. It is the means of perception, awareness about the objects. ‘All things are creations of mind’. On account of this productive capacity mind is mentioned as ‘land’. The existence of the world is in relation to the awareness of mind. Mind is considered as the basis of the six kinds of consciousness. The six forms of consciousness are identical with mind. Mind is the inducing cause for the awareness of objects through sense-organs and perception. Thus it has capacity to have cognition of an object. The entry, that is, receiving of the objects of consciousness (mano-āyatana) is known as manas. It can reach distant objects. While manas is the rational faculty, citta is the seat of emotion.

     The Yogācāra School considers the mind as separate from the six kinds of consciousness. It calls the mind as the home of all latent ideas. The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra says, "Citta exists; not the objects perceptible by sight. Through objects visually cognised, citta manifests itself in body, in one’s objects of enjoyment, residence, etc. It is called the ālaya of men." The mental factors make the mind good or

bad. Thus, one has to train one’s mind to keep it away from greed, hatred, delusion, conceit, and other unwholesome factors. It should be filled with loving kindness.

AS. I. 143, 150, 153, 160-163, 247, 349, 355. CMA. I. 27-31; VIII. 305-308. DP. I. 1, 2, 13-14; III. 1-7. LK. III. 33. MN. Anaṅgaṇa. SN. Aggi, Cīvara, Mettāsahagata. VM. IV. 105-109.

D

Dhāraṇī [-] mystical incantation. The verbal meaning of the word Dhāraṇī is that which holds. It is a magical formula in the form of a mantra in Sanskrit. The mystic mantra has a potential to hold the Buddha's teachings in the heart of him who recites. It is recited in order to attain mindfulness (smṛti), power (bala) and wisdom (prajñā). Its recitation brings in good luck such as a long life, victory, protection from snakes and removes evils such as disease.

     The Dhāraṇī mantra-s are used for threefold purpose, namely, incantation, benediction and magic spell. Dhāraṇī mantra-s are prevalent in the tantric Buddhism in Tibet, and in the Shingon Sect of Buddhism in Japan. Since Dhāraṇī-s are based on the occult power of sound, they do not have any verbal meaning. They contain 'seed syllable' (bīja).

     The later Mahāyāna literature contains Dhāraṇī-s. The Prajñā Pāramitā Hṛdaya Sūtra-s are used as Dhāraṇī-s. In the 9th chapter of Suvarṇaprabhāsa -- a later Mahāyāna Sūtra, Śrī Mahādevī -- the great goddess glorifies the Suvarṇaprabhāsa as a Dhāraṇī. Thus the Dhāraṇī-s often form part of the Mahāyāna Sūtra-s. However, independent works on Dhāraṇī-s such as large collections of Dhāraṇī-s are also found. The Dhāraṇī-mantra-saṃgraha is a collection of Dhāraṇī-s.

     The Pañcarakṣā, that is, the collection of the five

Dhāraṇī-s is popular in Nepal. These five protecting spells include

(1) mahā-pratisarā (for protection against sin, disease and evils),
(2) mahā-sahasrapramardinī (for protection against evil spirits),
(3) mahā-māyūrī or vidyārājñī (for protection against snake-poison),
(4) mahā-śītavatī (for protection against 'cruel' planets, cruel animals and poisonous insects), and
(5) mahā rakṣā mantrānusāriṇī (for protection against diseases).

MST. XVIII. 141. SD. XXI. 496-502. SVP. IX. 60-62; X. 63.

dharma [dhamma] the law, doctrine, nature of a thing, righteousness. The term dharma has many connotations. In its wide sense, it covers the teachings of the Buddha including the doctrine and its practice, that is righteousness. The Buddha himself has defined the scope of dharma. According to him, dharma includes the four foundations of mindfulness (smṛtiprasthāna) [satipaṭṭhāna], the four right efforts (pradhāna) [padhāna], the four bases of psychic potency [iddhipāda], the five faculties (indriya) [indriya], the five powers (bala) [bala], the seven factors of enlightenment (bodhyaṅga) [bojjhaṅga] and the Noble Eightfold Path (ārya aṣṭāṅgikamārga) [ariya aṭṭhaṅgika magga].

     The Buddha says that when the aspirant knows the supreme dhamma, he can cross the flood. So dharma is often compared to a raft. The ultimate goal of the practice of dharma is nirvāṇa. The Buddha says "Just as the great ocean has one flavour, the flavour of salt, even so, monks, this dhamma has one flavour, the flavour of nirvāṇa."

     The Buddha has also described the types of individuals who adhere to his dhamma. He says the one realising the path of stream winning, and one realising the fruition of stream winning, the one realising the path of once return and one realising the fruition of the once return, the one realising the path of non return, the one who has realised fruition of non return, the one realising the path of perfection, and the one realising the fruition of perfection take shelter and practise the dhamma.

     The dhamma of the Buddha does not discriminate the followers on the basis of castes. Members of different castes become simply recluses when they enter the dharma. The Buddha says, "O monks, as those great rivers... on reaching the great ocean lose their former names and identities and are reckoned simply as the great ocean, even so, monks, members of these four castes -- warriors, brahmins, merchants, and workers -- having gone forth from home into homelessness in the dhamma and discipline proclaimed by the truth-finder, lose their former names and clans and are reckoned simply as recluses."

     The utterance of the Buddha can be compared to the following words of the Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad (III 2.8). "As all those rivers flowing down merge into ocean abandoning their names and forms, so also the illumined soul merges into the supreme being."

     The actions rooted in greed, ill-will and delusion are depicted as adharma, whereas those which are free from these are regarded as dharma. The actions of an Arhat transcend both good and evil. The Buddha says, "You have to give up the righteous things (dharma) and much more the unrighteous (adharma). The good that makes one's life happy is āsrava kuśala and that which leads one to the enlightenment is anāsrava kuśala."

     The training in dharma is a gradual one like the great

ocean that deepens gradually, slopes gradually, shelves gradually. It should be so because the dhamma penetrated by him is deep, difficult to see, difficult to understand, peaceful, excellent, beyond dialectic, subtle, intelligible to the wise. It brings happiness.

     The dharma established by the Buddha has following virtues

(1) [svākkhāto bhagavatā dhammo] It was established and well proclaimed by the Blessed one.
(2) [sandiṭṭhiko] It is to be self-realised.
(3) [akāliko] It gives immediate results. If it is studied thoroughly and put into practice, it gives beneficial results here and now.
(4) [ehipassiko] It is open to all; each and everybody may come, see, test and analyse.
(5) [opaneyyiko] It leads to eternal peace and happiness.
(6) [paccattaṃ veditabbo viññūhi] One has to strive to comprehend dharma. The dharma is to be understood individually by the wise. The thirst of thirsty man cannot be quenched unless he himself drinks water; even so, each and every individual would tread his path to attain dharma. Every man has to work out his own emancipation.

     The Buddha wanted his dhamma to be the teacher after his parinirvāṇa. He said to Ānanda, "It may be, Ānanda, that some of you will think the word of the teacher is no more. We have no teacher. But one should not think in this way. The dhamma and discipline taught and laid down by me will be your teacher after my passing on." The Buddha wanted his disciples to become heirs of dhamma in him and not heirs of material things. Therefore, he says, "Ānanda, go along... having dhamma as lamp, dhamma as refuge, none other refuge."

(For elaboration, see under Dharma in the Introduction.)

An Aññatara-brāhmaṇa. MN Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhaya. Vinaya. Cūḷavagga. IX-1.2.

dharmacakra [dhammacakka] the wheel of the Doctrine. Dharma means the truth, wisdom or knowledge; cakra means a wheel or establishment. Dharmacakra, the compound word means the Doctrine or the Law established by Gautama Buddha. The doctrine alludes to the Four Noble Truths. The perfect one, the fully enlightened one, set rolling the unsurpassed wheel of the Law in the Deer Park at Isipatana also known as Sarnath near Vārāṇasī.

AS. Nidāna. 90, 119. DN. Mahāparinibbāna. LV. XXVI. 337-360. MST. XIX. 167. SD. II. 80. SN. Dhammacakkappavattana. Vinaya. Mahāvagga I.1.6.

dharmamudrā [dhamma-lakkhaṇam] seal of doctrine. Impermanence, suffering and non-self are the three basic seals of dharma. In addition to these seals, the Sūtra-s also mention emptiness as a seal. All these things are referred to as seals because any teaching which does not bear these features cannot be said as a teaching of the Buddha.

CMA. IX. 356. DN. Mahāparinibbāna. DP. XX. 277-279.

dhātu [dhātu] the four physical elements. Earth (pṛthvī) [paṭhavī-dhātu], water (āp) [āpo-dhātu], fire (tejas) [tejo-dhātu] and wind (vāyu) [vāyo-dhātu] are the four elements. Earth, the element of extension, the substratum of matter is characterised by hardness. The water element coheres particles of matter; it is characterised by cohesion. It serves to hold the body of a living being together. The fire element is the vitalising energy. It is characterised by heat. Fire matures the bodies, preserves them and keeps them away from decay. It digests whatever is eaten or drunk. The beauty of complexion is due to fire. The wind element is

the element of motion, the cause of movement. It is characterised by activeness. It props up the body of a living being. Hence one can stand, walk, sit or lie down. It is connected with heat. All the four elements coexist in every material object, in varying degrees. They are inseparable. Their preponderance differs in different objects. When there is preponderance of the earth material, an object will be called solid. If one breaks up the body into elements, the idea of living-being will vanish, the mind will be concentrated on the elements.

AS. I. 181; II. 455, 459. AN. Rāhula. DN. Kevaṭṭa, Saṅgīti. MN. Dhātuvibhaṅga, Mahāhatthipadopama. MST. XVIII. 147.

dhyāna [jhāna] meditation, absorption. Dhyāna is a technical term which pertains to the process of quieting the mind, concentrating it on a particular object and reaching the state where there is neither pain nor pleasure. This state is acquired through stages. Dhyāna is described as one of the threefold practices. It forms the eighth constituent of the Noble Eightfold Path.

     There are four meditative absorptions (dhyāna-s) in the realm of form. The absorption pertaining to the formless realm is a quiet state of mind in which there is complete cessation of thoughts.

     In the first dhyāna one is free from the five kinds of hindrances, namely, sensual desire, hatred, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and indecision leading to scepticism. One is endowed with thought-conception (vitarka) [vitakka], discursive thinking (vicāra) [vicāra], one-pointedness (ekāgratā) [ekaggatā], rapture (prīti) [pīti] and joy (sukha) [sukha]. In the second dhyāna rapture, joy and one-pointedness are present whereas thought-conception and discursive thinking are absent. In the third dhyāna only joy and one-pointedness remain. In the fourth

dhyāna equanimity and concentration are present. Thought-conception means lifting the mind towards the object of contemplation in order to fix it there. Discursive thinking helps one to concentrate the mind on the object of contemplation for a long period of time. Rapture is a feeling of delight and contentment. Joy is relishing the taste of an object that gives rapture. One-pointedness means focusing of mind on the object of contemplation.

     In the Abhidhamma a fivefold division of dhyāna is mentioned. In the second dhyāna according to Abhidhamma the constituent of discursive thinking, and a departure from thought-conception are found. The third, fourth and fifth dhyāna-s correspond to the second, third and fourth dhyāna-s described above.

     The difference between thought-conception and discursive thinking is compared to the state of a bird flapping its wings to ascend into the air and to the state of subsequent calm position of wings while flying in the air.

     In dhyāna the contact of sense organs with their objects is suspended. However, the lucidity of mind and equanimity of heart are experienced. The heart becomes serene and steady, pure and translucent. The dhyāna-s are means and not ends in themselves. They give the practitioner a spiritual religious experience which goes beyond thought and investigation.

AS. I. 173, 220, 241, 249, 258, 267-290, 314-315, 320. AN. Jhāna. CMA. II. 81-82, 93-94. DN. Sāmaññaphala. MN. Ākaṅkheyya, Anupada, Araṇavibhaṅga, Dhātuvibhaṅga, Vitakkasaṇṭhāna. SN. Jhānābhiññā. VM. IV. 111-137.

Dhyānī Buddha-s [ - ] A concept in esoteric Buddhism. The Buddha-s produced by meditation through the Ādi Buddha are known as Dhyānī-Buddha-s. Mahā-Vairocana,

Akṣobhya, Ratnasaṃbhava, Amitābha, and Amoghasiddhi are known as Dhyānī-Buddha-s. There are four of them in four directions and Mahā-Vairocana occupies the central position. They are the creative aspects of the primordial Buddha, that is, the Ādi-Buddha and are the creators of the phenomenal world. In the tantric ritual there are various methods or sādhanā-s to attain perfections (siddhi-s). Dhyānī-Buddha-s are worshipped as deities in these sādhanā-s.

(For details see Appendix G, Vajrayānam.)

G

gati [gati] realms of existence. There are six realms of existence. They are existence as a god, a human being, an animal, a hungry spirit, a demon, or a hell-dweller. Living beings are reborn in one of the six realms of existence according to their karma. Good karma leads to rebirth as either a human being or a heavenly being; evil karma leads to birth in other realms of existence. Living beings in saṃsāra move in the planes of existence till they are liberated.

CMA. V. 189-190. MN. Ākaṅkheyya, Bhayabherava, Dvedhāvitakka.

H

hṛdaya-vastu [hadaya-vatthu] heart-basis. The heart is considered as the physical support of all citta-s other than the two sets of fivefold sense consciousness which take their respective sensitivities as their bases. The hṛdaya-vastu is described as the seat of thought and feeling -- the basis of mind. It is the seat of the divine intuition and of the Buddha-nature.

AS. I. 247.

I

indriya [indriya] faculty. Indriya is a comprehensive term. It means a controlling principle or a directive force, a faculty. The term has its bearing on philosophy, psychology

and ethics in Buddhism.

     There are twenty-two indriya-s which can be classified as physical, mental, spiritual and supramundane faculties.

(1) eye (cakṣu) [cakkhu],
(2) ear (śrotra) [sota],
(3) nose (ghrāṇa) [ghāna],
(4) tongue (jihvā) [jivhā],
(5) body-sensibility (kāya) [kāya],
(6) mind (manas) [mano],
(7) femininity (strī) [itthi],
(8) masculinity (puruṣa) [purisa],
(9) vitality (jīvita) [jīvita],
(10) bodily pleasant feeling (sukha) [sukha],
(11) bodily pain (duḥkha) [dukkha],
(12) joy (saumanasya) [somanassa],
(13) grief (daurmanasya) [domanassa],
(14) indifference (upekṣā) [upekkhā],
(15) faith (śraddhā) [saddhā],
(16) energy (vīrya) [viriya],
(17) mindfulness (smṛti) [sati],
(18) concentration (samādhi) [samādhi],
(19) wisdom (prajñā) [paññā],
(20) assurance ‘I shall come to know what I did not still know’; (ajñātamājñāsyāmīndriya) [aññātaññassāmītindriya],
(21) faculty of highest knowledge (ājñendriya) [aññindriya],
(22) faculty of one who knows (ājñātāvīndriya) [aññātāvindriya].
     The first five indriyas constitute five faculties (pañca

indriyāṇi).
     The first, second, third, fourth, fifth, seventh and eighth are physical faculties. The ninth is considered as either physical or mental. The remaining are mental faculties.
     The last three are treated as supramundane faculties.

CMA. VII. 273. DN. Dasuttara, Mahāparinibbāna, Saṅgīti. MN. Chachakka, Indriyabhāvanā, Kinti, Sāmagāma.

indriya samatva [indriya samatta] maintaining balance of spiritual faculties. According to some scholars, samatta comes from samādatta in Sanskrit which means properly received. Indriya samatta means maintaining a proper balance between the five spiritual faculties, namely, faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom. Faith should be supported by wisdom; otherwise it tends to be a blind faith. Unless wisdom is supported by faith, it would be vain. Similarly, when energy and concentration go together, then only the desired fruit can be obtained. Each of the above faculties should be accompanied by mindfulness.

īryā-patha [iriyā-patha] ways of movement. The Sanskrit root īr means to go or to move. Īryā-patha connotes bodily postures, namely, walking, standing, sitting and lying. In the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta these postures are mentioned as objects of contemplation. The purpose behind considering them as objects of contemplation is that while walking the aspirant fully understands that walking is a mere action; there is no agent behind the action. Thus he remains free from the notion of an eternal soul.

DN. Mahāsatipaṭthāna. VM. III. 84-86.

J

jāti-jarā [jāti-jarā] birth and old age. Jāti means birth and

jarā means old age. They are kinds of sufferings. Birth includes conception, coming into existence, evolution of the aggregates and attaining sense-organs. It is conditioned by karma. Birth is the eleventh link in the formula of the Dependent Origination. The suffering of old age arises due to birth. Old age is regarded as the messenger of death. Grief, sorrow, suffering, lamentation, worry, old age and death are mentioned collectively as suffering.

K

kalpa [kappa] world period. Kalpa means ‘world period’, a long duration of time. It is divided into four: a period of world dissolution (saṃvarta kalpa) [samvaṭṭa-kappa]; continuation of the chaos (saṃvarta-sthāyī) [samvaṭṭa-ṭṭhāyī]; world-formation (vivarta) [vivaṭṭa-kappa]; and continuation of the formed world (vivartasthāyī-kalpa) [vivaṭṭa-ṭṭhāyī].

     The specific duration of these periods is not fixed, and even beginning of the first period is unknown. According to the Buddha, there have been many hundred thousands of world periods. This is an on-going process. There are short, medium, great and incalculable kalpa-s. Twenty short kalpa-s make one medium kalpa and four medium kalpa-s make a great kalpa.

     The kalpa-s are of two kinds; the śūnya kalpa-s are those in which Buddha-s do not appear and the aśūnya kalpa-s are those in which Buddha-s appear to save the sentient-beings. The kalpa in which one Buddha appears is known as śara. The kalpa in which two Buddha-s appear is known as manda. That kalpa in which three Buddha-s are born is known as vara and the one in which four are born is known as śaramanda. Buddha-kalpa is that in which five Buddha-s are born.

AN. Kappa.

kalyāṇa-mitra [kalyāṇa mitta] A spiritual friend, a virtuous friend. One who wishes for the welfare of his disciple, is concerned with his progress, and guides his meditation is known as a kalyāṇa-mitra. His qualities are to have faith, be virtuous, learned, liberal and wise. The association with a kalyāṇa-mitra is conducive to the attainment of the path and perfection. It helps the aspirant to realise the seven factors of enlightenment. The Buddha is the spiritual friend par excellence. Since he is a good friend of all living beings, they can cross the saṃsāra. An Arhat is also designated as a kalyāṇa-mitra.

AS. 275; III. 477. MST. IV. 16; XVII. 116. SD. III. 132. SN. Kalyāṇamitta. VM. III. 78-82.

karma [kamma] action. Karma includes all moral and immoral volitions and their concomitant mental factors. The Buddha says, "I declare, O Bhikkhu-s, that cetanā, that is, volition is karma. Having willed, an individual acts through mind, speech and body." Karma embraces past and present actions. The actions of the Buddha-s and Arhat-s are exceptions to the law of karma. They have uprooted ignorance and craving -- the roots of karma.

     Karma can be described in terms of the law of cause and effect. Discrepancy in birth of living beings and the worldly conditions such as gain and loss, fame and infamy, blame and praise, happiness and sorrow are due to good or evil karma. There exists an order in actions and their results which is known as karma-niyama. Good actions lead to good results and evil actions to evil results.

     A question was raised, "What is the reason, O Lord, behind the discrepancy amongst the mankind? Some have a short life-span, some others have a long life. Some are diseased, some others are healthy. Some are ugly and some others are beautiful. Some are powerful and some others

are weak. Some are poor and some others are rich. Some are low born and some others belong to noble family. Some are ignorant and some others are wise." On this, the Buddha said, "All living beings are owners of their karma. They are heirs to their karma; it is verily the cause of their birth; it is their relative and refuge." Ignorance is the main cause of karma, volition is the doer and reaps its fruit.

     The ten kinds of wholesome and unwholesome actions are known as course of action (karma-patha). They comprise bodily, verbal and mental actions. Ten unwholesome actions represent three bodily, four verbal and three mental actions. They are killing, stealing, unlawful sexual contact; lying, slandering, impolite speech, frivolous talk; covetousness, ill-will and false views. The ten wholesome actions are refraining from killing, stealing, unlawful sexual contact; true utterance, agreeable, mild, and wise speech; harbouring and maintaining unselfishness, good-will, and right views. The roots of unwholesome actions are greed, hatred and delusion. Unselfishness, loving-kindness and goodwill are the roots of wholesome actions.

     With reference to its time of operation karma is classified into three kinds: that which becomes effective during the life-span [diṭṭhadhammavedanīyam], that which becomes effective in the subsequent birth [upapajjavedanīyam] and that which becomes effective in later births [aparāpariyavedanīyam]. That which does not have any potential force is known as ineffective karma [ahosi].

     Another classification of karma is based on the priority in producing the result. This classification pertains to fourfold karma, namely, weighty karma [āciṇṇam], habitual karma [garukam], death proximate karma [āsannam], and cumulative karma [kaṭattā]. The

wholesome weighty karma refers to the dhyāna-s and the unwholesome to the heinous sins. Habitual karma is that which an individual performs, recollects and likes continuously. The death-proximate karma refers to the volition existing before the death of an individual. It is an action which one does or recollects immediately before death. In the absence of the above-mentioned karma of three kinds, the cumulative karma produces rebirth.

     One more classification of karma is made according to the plane in which it ripens. This classification pertains to

(1) the evil actions which may ripen in the sense-sphere [akusalam],
(2) the wholesome actions which may ripen in the sense-sphere [kāmāvacarakusalam],
(3) wholesome actions which may ripen in the realms of form [rūpāvacarakusalam], and
(4) wholesome actions which may ripen in the formless realms [arūpāvacarakusalam].

     The evil actions which may ripen in the sense-sphere are the ten unwholesome actions mentioned earlier. The wholesome actions which may ripen in the sense sphere are: generosity, morality, meditation, reverence, service, transference of merit, rejoicing in others’ good actions, hearing the doctrine, expounding the doctrine, and righteous views. The actions which may ripen in the realms of form are the five kinds of rūpa-dhyāna-s, the ecstasies, which are mental. Those which may ripen in the formless realms are the four ārūpya dhyāna-s.

     Karma is also classified with relation to its functions. This classification deals with four kinds of karma, namely, reproductive karma [janakaṃ], supportive karma [upatthambakam], counter-active karma [upapīḷakam], and destructive karma [upaghātakam]. Reproductive karma

is the predominating good or evil karma at the moment of death which conditions rebirth. It produces mind and matter, nāmarūpa for an individual. Supportive karma is the past karma which assists and maintains the fruition of the reproductive karma. Counteractive karma is the past karma that weakens and obstructs the fruition of the reproductive karma. Destructive karma is the past karma which obstructs and destroys the force of the reproductive karma. The result, that is, vipāka of good karma brings desired conditions and the result of evil karma brings evil states in life.

AS. I. 180, 200, 209, 355, 517. CMA. V. 200-219. DN. Saṅgīti. MN. Cūḷakammavibhaṅga. MST. XV. 96; XVIII. 139. SD. II. 56. SN. Dasakammapatha. VM. III. 76.

kaṣāya [kasāya, kasāva] fundamental faults. These faults are of five kinds.

(1) defilement regarding the span of human life (āyuḥ-kaṣāya). It means the shortening of the life-span of human beings as a whole.
(2) defilement regarding the condition of human being (sattva-kaṣāya). It is the state when people are mostly in a sorrowful condition.
(3) defilement regarding view (dṛṣṭi-kaṣāya). It means wrong and perverse thoughts and ideas become predominant.
(4) defilement regarding passions (kleśa kaṣāya) means violation of moral conduct is exalted.
(5) defilement of age (kalpa-kaṣāya). It is the age in which wars and natural calamities frequently take place.

MST. IX. 42. SD. II. 56.

kleśa [kilesa] defilement, impurity or delusion. According to Buddhist psychology, mind is fundamentally pure but it is defiled by unwholesome qualities known as defilements that come from without. The defilements stand in the way of spiritual practice and obstruct wisdom. When they are latent and inactive in mind, they are known as residue (anuśaya) [anusaya]; when they become distinct, they are known as paryavasthāna [pariyuṭṭhāna].

     The defilements are designated as akuśala, that is, the evil factors. The defilements of greed (rāga or lobha), aversion (dveṣa) [dosa], ignorance (moha, avidyā) [avijjā] are the root causes of suffering. These are known as three fundamental defilements. They are in conflict with generosity, loving-kindness and wisdom which are known as the root causes of awakening.

     An aspirant has to overcome the above-mentioned defilements; he has to substitute them by the wholesome roots of awakening and march on the path of spirituality. When the operation of the defilements comes to an end, the aspirant attains nirvāṇa.

     According to the Abhidhamma the ten defilements are as follows.

(1) greed (lobha),
(2) hatred (doṣa) [dosa],
(3) delusion (moha),
(4) conceit (māna),
(5) false views (kudṛṣṭi) [diṭṭhi],
(6) doubt (vicikitsā) [vicikicchā],
(7) mental torpor (styāna) [thīna],
(8) restlessness (auddhatya) [uddhacca],
(9) shamelessness (to do evil) (āhrīkya) [ahirika],
(10) lack of fear (to do evil) (anotrapya) [anottappa].

     The Yogācāra School enlists the defilements as follows: greed, anger, pride, ignorance, false views, and doubt.

     The list of the auxiliary defilements contains wrath, enmity, hypocrisy, worry, jealousy, trickery, deceit, arrogance, causing injury, shamelessness, lack of modesty, mental torpor, restlessness, non-belief, sloth, indolence, forgetfulness, distraction, non-discernment, regret, drowsiness, discursive thought, and investigation.

     The Buddha was beyond defilements. In the Aṅguttara Nikāya, the Buddha says, "As a lotus, fair and lovely, is not soiled by water, by the world I am not soiled. Therefore, I am the Buddha."

AS. I. 357. CMA. I. 38-39; VII. 268-269. MN. Ākaṅkheyya, Anaṅga, Bhayabherava, Cetokhila, Chachakka, Cūḷadukkhakhandha, Cūḷavedalla, Dhammadāyāda, Dhātuvibhaṅga, Dvedhāvitakka, Madhupiṇḍika, Mahāsaccaka, Sabbāsava, Sallekha, Sammādiṭṭhi, Vattha. SN. Aññatara, Anusaya, Avijjā, Bhikkhu, Vidhā.

kṛtsna [kasiṇa] a kind of device of meditation. Kasiṇa is an external device chosen for concentration. It is an aid to concentration culminating into absorptions (dhyāna). Kasiṇa is conducive to the mystic meditation. Generally, ten kasiṇa-s are enumerated. They are the earth kasiṇa, the water kasiṇa, the fire kasiṇa, the wind kasiṇa, the blue kasiṇa, the yellow kasiṇa, the red kasiṇa, the white kasiṇa, the space kasiṇa, and the consciousness. Sometimes only eight kasiṇa-s are mentioned omitting the last two.

     Each kasiṇa is fivefold -- above, below, horizontal, non-dual, and beyond measure. When attention is focused on one particular kasiṇa object, by gazing at it constantly, a mental image is formed from the concentration on the visible image, and from the mental image is formed the

counter image leading to the upacāra samādhi. This concentration ultimately culminates into the first mental absorption.

AS. I. 274, 298, 303. DN. Saṅgīti. VM. III. 89; IV. 120-121; V. 138-144.

kuśalamūla [kusala-mūla] root of goodness. Kuśalamūla is the root of goodness or the wholesome action. The roots are detachment (alobha), absence of hatred (adoṣa) [adosa], and non-delusion or absence of ignorance (amoha), that is, wisdom. Detachment is the absence of greed. Hatelessness means the absence of hatred. These two dharma-s lead to the formation of generosity and loving-kindness respectively.

     Non-delusion means absence of ignorance, and presence of knowledge of action and its result. It also means knowing and understanding the scriptures and the dharma, knowledge of insight, path and fruition.

AS. I. 209, 233-235, 242, 245, 254-255, 379. AVK. VI. 52; XIX. 144. DN. Dasuttara, Sampasādanīya, Saṅgīti. MN. Sammādiṭṭhi.

M

Maitreya, the Bodhisattva who is predicted to succeed Śākyamuni as the future human Buddha. His prominent epithet is Ajita which means invincible. Sometimes the epithet is used as his name. He is the first in the list of the Bodhisattva-s, sometimes the second, after Avalokiteśvara. Maitreya is recognised in both the Theravāda and the Mahāyāna. Though he is mentioned only once in the Nikāya-s, abundant references are made to him in the Lalita-Vistara, Divyāvadāna and Mahāvastu. Maitreya is mentioned as the one who is born in the Tuṣita heaven, where in an inner palace he reveals the Law to the Heavenly Beings. In the concluding verse of Visuddhimagga, Buddhaghoṣa has expressed his earnest desire to attain

Arhatship in the presence of Maitreya.

Divyāvadānamālā. III. SD. I. 6.

mala [mala] impurity. The three unwholesome roots akuśala-mūla, namely, greed (lobha), hatred (dveṣa) [dosa], and delusion (moha) are mentioned as impurities in the Buddhist literature.

MN. Vattha. SN. Mala.

Mañjuśrī (sometimes Mañjuśīrī or Mañjuśiri) the name of a Bodhisattva. He possesses the wisdom of the Buddha-s. In the Gaṇḍavyūha he is described as the only one who can help the aspirant to the perfect enlightenment. He is the first among the sixty persons of matchless mind (anupamacitta-s) who attend on the Buddha. His epithet, Kumārabhūta, has led to his identification with Kumāra Kārttikeya. His attributes are a lotus and a book. He holds the sword of knowledge in his right hand and the book of saving knowledge in his left hand. He bestows eloquence on those who call for him.

Flower. VII. 272. SD. I. 22. SG. XI. 36.

mārga [magga] the four stages of righteousness. The spiritual development of a śrāvaka, that is, a disciple consists of four stages, namely, the stage of stream enterer (srotāpanna) [sotāpanno], once returner (sakṛdāgāmin) [sakadāgāmi], non returner (anāgāmin) [anāgāmī] and holy (Arhat) [Arahant]. These stages ultimately culminate into nirvāṇa. Each of these four stages has two states, namely, that of effort and of attainment. The state of effort is considered to be the lower and that of attainment to be the higher state. Thus the number of states is eight, namely, srotāpattimārga, strotāpattiphala, sakṛdāgāmimārga, sakṛdāgāmiphala, anāgāmimārga, anāgāmiphala, Arhanmārga, and Arhattva.

     The stage of effort of a 'stream enterer' is known as darśana-mārga (way of view) because at this stage the theoretical errors of view are overcome. Stages two to seven are known as bhāvanā-mārga, the stages of practice. In these stages truth is cultivated and defilements regarding thought and practice are overcome. The highest stage, that of an Arhat is attained at the extinction of all defilements.

AS. I. 137, 267, 274, 322-323, 345, 349-350. CMA. I. 65; IX. 358-362. MN. Vattha. SN. Nirodha.

N

navāṅga śāsana [navaṅga sāsana] the nine divisions of the teachings of the Buddha. The teachings of the Buddha are divided into nine categories. They are

(1) Prose sermons (sūtra) [sutta],
(2) Sermons in which both prose and verse forms are used (geya) [geyya],
(3) Explanations in prose expounding the doctrine in detail (vyākaraṇa) [veyyākaraṇa],
(4) Stanzas [gāthā],
(5) Solemn utterances [udāna],
(6) Short discourses beginning with the words 'Thus spake the Buddha' (itivṛttaka) [itivuttaka],
(7) Stories regarding former births of the Buddha [jātaka],
(8) Narration of miracles (adbhutadharma) [abbhutadhamma],
(9) Discourses consisting of teachings in the form of questions and answers [vedalla].

     In addition to the nine divisions, introductory narratives relating the circumstances of a work [nidāna], heroic deeds [avadāna] and explanatory discourses (upadeśa) are also mentioned as divisions of Buddha's teachings.

AS. Nidāna. 37, 51-52, 55. AN. Sotanugata, Ummagga. MST. XIX. 159. SD. II. 60.

niraya [niraya] hell. Niraya means the downward path, the nether world or hell. It is one of the four lower realms of existence, the other lower realms of existence being the animal world, the ghost world and the demon world. Hell is a temporary place for punishment. Here the sinners have to undergo horrible ordeals to atone for their sins. Names of various hells such as Dhūma, Raurava, Kākola, Khuradhāra are found in the Buddhist literature. The eight hells are Sañjīva, Kālasūtra, Saṅghāta, Raurava, Mahāraurava, Tāpa, Pratāpa and Avīci. Among them the lowest and the most dreadful is the Avīci also known as Avīcimahāniraya. The adjectives such as mahā, ghora, dāruṇa and bhayānaka which mean terrible indicate the fearfulness of tortures in these hells.

     In Buddhism hell is not a place where the sinner has to live permanently. Upon the exhaustion of evil, birth may be obtained in another state, again on the basis of the past karma.

     Hell is interpreted as a mental state of evil thoughts.

AS. III. 519. CMA. V. 189-190. MV. II. 3-19.

Nirmāṇarati [nimmānaratī] the realm of the Gods. The Gods create their own mansions or magical enjoyments. Paranirmitavaśavartin [para-nimmita vasavattī] is the realm of the highest class of kāmāvacara gods controlling enjoyments created by others. The Gods inhabiting the six realms have subtle bodies and hence they cannot be seen with human eye. They are young and enjoy happiness.

nirvāṇa [nibbāna] emancipation. Nirvāṇa, the summum bonum of Buddhism is an unconditioned dharma (asaṃskṛta dharma). 'Nir' is a negative particle. 'Vā'

means to blow. The word nirvāṇa means extinction, the condition of being blown out; the state in which the fire (of defilements) has been extinguished. The primitive Buddhist Sūtra-s define nirvāṇa as the extinction of greed, anger and ignorance. One of the etymologies of nirvāṇa is given as 'no forest' (nir-vana), that is, absence of the jungle of defilements.

     In the Ādittapariyāya sutta the Buddha says everything is in flames. "The whole world is in flames", says the Lord. "By the fire of lust, hatred, and delusion; by the fire of birth, old age, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and despair it is burning." Extinction of these flames is the state of nirvāṇa. Craving binds one to the cycle of birth and death. The karmic forces cease to function at the extinction of craving which is the state of nirvāṇa. It is Lokottara dharma, that is, the supramundane state.

     The four aspects of nirvāṇa are

(1) nirvāṇa with residue (sopādhiśeṣa nirvāṇa),
(2) nirvāṇa without residue (anupādhiśeṣa nirvāṇa or nirupādhiśeṣa nirvāṇa or parinirvāṇa),
(3) the primeval nirvāṇa (svabhāva nirvāṇa),
(4) non-abiding nirvāṇa (apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa).

     Nirvāṇa with residue means freedom from defilements and from future births. After attaining this nirvāṇa the physical body in the present birth still exists as a result of past karma. It is called sopādhiśeṣa nirvāṇa because the groups of existence -- mind and body (upādhi) -- still remain. This aspect is attained by an Arhat during his life.

     Nirvāṇa without residue means freedom from defilements and from the groups of existence. The continuation of physico-mental process of existence comes to an end. This is the kind of nirvāṇa which an Arhat attains when he gives up physical body. It is perfect tranquillity.

Nirvāṇa is of one intrinsic nature. The presence or absence of aggregates make it known as nirvāṇa with or without residue remaining. The Buddha entered Parinirvāṇa while giving up his body.

     The Primeval nirvāṇa (svabhāva nirvāṇa) always exists even if one may not realise it. Svabhāva means self-nature, that is, the Buddha nature (Buddha gotra), the essence of which is pure.

     Non-abiding nirvāṇa (apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa) is the highest goal of the Bodhisattva-s. The Buddha-s attain this aspect of nirvāṇa. In this aspect one does not abide in saṃsāra or in the ultimate quiescence. 'Through great wisdom there is no abiding in birth and death. Through great compassion, there is no abiding in nirvāṇa'. An effort is made to bring enlightenment to all living beings.

     The characteristic mark of nirvāṇa is that there is cutting off the ever flowing stream of the mental and physical processes.

     The inherent functional property of nirvāṇa is that there is freedom from change and decay. The resultant appearance of nirvāṇa is that it is void, signless and desireless. It is void because it is devoid of greed, hatred, and delusion, and of all that which is conditioned. It is signless because it is devoid of the signs of greed, hatred and delusion. It is desireless because it is free from the hankering of greed, hatred and delusion.

     It is an objective state which is deathless, endless, unconditioned and unsurpassed. "Padam accutam, accantam asankhatam, anuttaram. Nibbānam iti bhāsanti vānamuttā mahesayo."

AN. Nibbāna, Nibbānasukha. AS. I. 130; III. 544; IV. 558. CMA. VI. 258-260. DN. Mahāparinibbāna. DP. VI. 14. MN. Cūḷataṇhāsaṅkhaya. MN. Mahāassapura.

Mahāsaccka. Mahāsaḷāyatanika. SN. Kosambi. SP. Mahāsudassana.

P

paramārtha [paramattha] paramārtha satya [paramattha sacca] the highest truth, paramārtha deśanā [paramattha desanā] the highest teaching, paramārtha vacana [paramattha vacana] the highest speech.

     Paramārtha satya is the highest truth, which is different from the conventional truth (vyavahāra satya) [vohāra sacca] or samvṛti satya [sammuti sacca].

     The Abhidhamma Piṭaka contains the ultimate truth, teaching and speech whereas the Sutta Piṭaka contains the conventional truth, teaching and speech. Beyond mind and matter there is no permanent entity such as self. This is the ultimate truth. The conventional teaching comprises ethics, morality, whereas the ultimate teaching speaks of the existence as physical and mental phenomena, subject to change. When the Buddha speaks about such entities such as living-beings, men, women, animals, etc. he is uttering vyavahāra [vohāra] vacana which is the conventional mode of speech. Reference to rebirth comes under conventional speech. The utterances of the Buddha have, besides direct meaning, an implicit meaning and hence ultimately they speak of impermanence of the phenomena, devoid of a self. The Mādhyamika school has elaborated on the paramārtha.

AS. Nidāna. 42, 49; I. 152, 338. CMA. I. 25; MK. XXIV. 18. MST. VI. 24-26; XI. 56; XIX. 167; XVIII. 152.

pāramitā, pārami or pāramī [pārami, pāramī, pāramitā] transcendental virtues or perfections. Pāram means beyond. It means to go, to go to the other shore, that is, to go beyond the realm of saṃsāra. The term pārami is used to denote the virtues to be practised by a Bodhisattva in order to attain the Buddhahood. The following virtues are known

as ṣaṭ pāramitā-s, or six virtues. They are explained by the Buddha in the Vajracchedikā Prajñā Pāramitā Sūtra, to Subhūti and the other monks in an assembly.

(1) charity (dāna),
(2) morality (śīla),
(3) forbearance (kṣānti),
(4) energy (vīrya),
(5) meditation (dhyāna), and
(6) wisdom (prajñā).

     The first reference to the ten pārami-s is found in the Daśabhūmika Sūtra. Besides the pārami-s mentioned above it mentions skilful means (upāya), vows (praṇidhāna), strength (bala), and transcendental knowledge (jñāna). Thus the term of ten virtues (daśa pārami-s) came into existence.

     The 550 Jātaka-s also enumerate the said pārami-s. The Theravāda tradition added renunciation of house-holder's life [nekkhamma], resolution [adhiṭṭhāna], loving-kindness [mettā], truth [sacca] and equanimity [upekkhā] to the list of six virtues and omitted dhyāna. The Aṭṭhasālinī enlists charity, morality, renunciation of householder's life, wisdom, energy, forbearance, truthfulness, resolution, loving-kindness, and equanimity as ten pārami-s.

The salient features of some of the virtues are elaborated below.

(1) dāna [dāna] generosity

Dāna is the first amongst the pāramitā-s. It is benevolence in action. It develops the quality of selflessness. The giver and the recipient, both are benefited by it. He who gives alms to the recipient helps him to have a long life, good appearance, happiness and strength, and in return gains the same either in the world of human beings or of the

heavenly beings. A Bodhisattva, besides cherishing the feeling of love and compassion, should make gifts to the poor and needy and serve the afflicted. A Bodhisattva gives wealth, possessions including his kingdom, children, wife, limbs and even life, when required.

(2) śīla [sīla] morality

The Buddha says that just as when a Yak cow's [camarīmiga] tail is firmly caught by bush or thorn it thereupon awaits its death but does not tear or mar its tail, in the same way an aspirant should observe and keep the precepts regarding pātimokkha-saṃvara-sīla, indriya-saṃvara-sīla, ājīvapārisuddhi sīla and paccayasannisita sīla.

(For details, see under śīla.)

(3) kṣānti [khanti] forbearance

Forbearance denotes the capacity to endure sufferings and injustice. The Buddha says if one pours a handful of salt in a bowl of water, the water will become salty and nobody will be able to drink it. If one pours a handful of salt into a river the water of river will not taste salty and people will be able to drink it. It is so because the river is big and so it can receive impure things and can also transform them into pure. If the heart of a human-being is large, it can receive sufferings, endure them and even transform them. The Buddha says, "Just as the earth never shows complacency or repugnance though sweet or foul things are thrown on it, even so one must endure honour or scorn."

(4) vīrya [viriya] energy

The Buddha says, just as lion, the king of beasts, while crouching, walking and standing still is full of courage, and is always watchful and alert, even so one should display courageours energy in repeated births that will lead one to enlightenment.

(5) dhyāna [jhāna] meditation

Dhyāna as a pārami denotes meditation as a device to cut the illusion of an ego. Residence in a favourable place, restraint on desire, contentment, elimination of craving and multiple activities and observing code of moral conduct are the prerequisites of dhyāna. Its nature is one-pointed mind fixed on the meditative object without straying away from it.

(6) prajñā [paññā] insight, knowledge, understanding, wisdom

Prajñā means knowledge accompanied by wisdom. It is one of the three kinds of training, one of the four means of accomplishment, one of the five controlling faculties, one of the five powers, and one of the seven factors of enlightenment. Prajñā is the wisdom which purifies one. It stimulates one to follow the stages of the 'stream-enterer', the 'once-returner', the 'non-returner' and the Arhat, and paves one's way to deliverance. Prajñā includes knowledge regarding impermanence, sorrow and non-existence of soul.

     Prajñā is classified into three kinds depending upon its source. The first is the knowledge which is obtained by hearing the discourses, (śruta) [suta], that is, through oral tradition. The second is that which one attains through the process of thinking (cintā). The third one is knowledge attained through meditation and contemplation (bhāvanā). It is knowledge which is beyond reasoning.

(7) adhiṣṭhāna [adhiṭṭhāna] resolution

Adhiṣṭhāna means to make resolution to become Buddha and to accomplish it. This power drives away all obstructions out of the path of the aspirant.

     The Buddha says, "The peak of a rocky mountain always stands unmoved and firm established. It is unshaken by

strong winds and always abides in its place. Likewise one must be steady in one's own firm resolution."

     This pārami corresponds to the praṇidhāna pārami in the Mahāyāna tradition.

(8) maitrī [mettā] loving kindness, benevolence

Maitrī implies the thought that 'Whatsoever living beings there be, feeble or strong, long, stout or medium, short, small or large, seen or unseen, those dwelling far or near, those who are born and those who are to be born, may all beings, without exception, be happy'.

     Loving-kindness ultimately makes one identify with all living beings. Mystic power has been attributed to maitrī and it is said that the wild beasts give up perpetual animosity among them and live together happily when they come under the influence of maitrī. The wicked give up their wickedness. Hatred and ill will vanish when loving-kindness arises. A Bodhisattva tends loving kindness towards the whole world. He embraces all living beings through loving-kindness. One should extend this feeling towards oneself also.

(9) satya [sacca] truthfulness

In the context of pāramitā satya means the fulfilment of one's promise; the harmony in thought, speech and action. A Bodhisattva acts as he speaks; he speaks as he acts -- yathāvādī tathākārī, yathākārī tathāvādī. To keep his promise a Bodhisattva is willing to sacrifice his life. True speech should be sweet, agreeable, gentle and beneficial to others.

(10) upekṣā [upekkhā] equanimity

Upekṣā means to view rightly. The states of happenings are to be viewed impartially and with equanimity. Happiness or sorrow, success or failure, loss or gain, fame

and infamy, praise and blame are to be borne with a balanced mind. One should not be overjoyed on attaining pleasant states nor should one be perturbed on attaining sorrowful conditions. All earthly events ensue agreeable or disagreeable consequences. A man of self-culture who has cultivated equanimity is not affected by sorrowful events or attached to fleeting pleasures. Equanimity uproots attachment, clinging and aversion. To him who has cultivated equanimity, a saint and a sinner are not different.

(11) naiṣkramya [nekkhamma] renunciation

Naiṣkramya means freedom from lust, craving and sensual desire or renunciation. Samyak-saṃkalpa comprises naiṣkramya. It denotes renunciation of worldly pleasures and also attenuation of hindrances by dhyāna-s. A Bodhisattva is not induced by pleasures, gross or subtle. Wealth, honour or fame cannot make him swerve from the righteous way of life because he knows them to be ephemeral and vain. Born in a Buddha-cycle, a Bodhisattva would lead a life of bhikṣu. If he is born in a Buddhaless cycle, he would become an ascetic.

(12) upāya [upāya] means

Upāya or Upāyakauśalya means skilful means. The term upāya denotes devices for training the śrāvaka-s to cultivate and develop in their mind the desire to attain Buddhahood. Means are prescribed for a Bodhisattva. There are ten stages (daśa bhūmi) through which the practitioner advances in the Buddhist practice. In the seventh stage, that is, the stage of being far reaching (dūraṅgamā-bhūmi), skilful means (upāya-s) are cultivated to bring about salvation to all beings.

(13) bala [bala] power

Bala means one's own power to attain Buddhahood and the power to bring others on the path. It also denotes the

power to visualise the Buddha and to hear his words. Power is the capacity to associate oneself with good people and good deeds. It is the strength that enables one to make others free from sufferings and to liberate them from the cycle of birth and death.

     Power is also defined as the two strengths, of fulfilment of desires and capacity to lead the world.

(14) praṇidhāna-vows

Praṇidhāna means to take an oath to become a Buddha. The Bodhisattva undertakes discipline to attain bodhi. When he resolves for the attainment of Buddhahood the stage is known as bodhi praṇidhi citta. The next stage of actual practice of discipline is known as bodhi prasthāna citta. The Daśabhūmika Sūtra throws light on praṇidhāna-s. These great resolves are to be made in the presence of a kalyāṇamitra. The prominent among them are that the Bodhisattva will benefit the sentient beings through his infinite knowledge and power; he will put his efforts to make them free from sufferings such as diseases and mental sorrows; he will guide them so that they will not be born in evil states.

AS. Nidāna. 83-90, 116. AVK. VI. 52. BC. V. 52-84; VI. 85-120; VII. 121-140; VIII. 141-288. CMA. II. 90. JK. I. 67, 104-109. MP. IV. 125, 189-191. MST. III. 12; IV. 15-16; XI. 70-73; XVI. 97-113; XVII. 126; XIX. 158; XX-XXI. 173, 175. SD. II. 66. VC. XIV. 127. VM. IV. 129-131.

parihāṇa [parihāna] loss. The Sanskrit root hā means to give up, parihāṇa means giving up, that is, loss. An aspirant who has reached absorptions of the realm of form or the formless realms should be wakeful; otherwise he may fall from the absorption. If the process of reaching the absorption is not natural, if the place and time do not suit

the aspirant or if he has attained the absorption with a lot of painstaking effort, he might lose the state. The loss is called parihāṇa.

DN. Saṅgīti. MST. XVI. 108; XIX. 158.

parijñā [pariññā] accurate understanding. Parijñā means wisdom that gives the correct understanding of suffering as the Noble Truth. Parijñā is of three kinds

(1) understanding through knowledge (jñāta) [ñāta],
(2) analytical knowledge (tīrṇa) [tīraṇa], and
(3) knowledge that dispels craving (prahāṇa) [pahāna].

     The first one is to know the distinction between mind and matter along with their characteristics and their causal knowledge.

     The second is the analytical knowledge which means understanding correctly the impermanence, unsatisfactoriness and unsubstantiality of mind and matter.

     The third, that is, the dispelling knowledge leads to the abandonment of craving for the five aggregates of existence.

MST. XI. 57-58; XVIII. 152.

parṣad [pariṣā] assembly. Parṣad comprises of those who believe in the Buddha and his Law. The members of the assembly belong to four classes of believers, namely, laymen, laywomen, monks and nuns.

MN. Mahāgosiṅga.

paryāpti [pariyatti] accomplishment in learning. A disciple has to learn by heart the holy text. His behaviour should be in consonance with the holy scriptures. He has to penetrate them and realize them fully.

AS. III. 502; IV. 567.

poṣadha [uposatha] the holy day. The term uposatha comes from upavasatha which means day for preparation. The 1st, 8th, 15th and, 23rd of a lunar month are regarded as uposatha. These are the full moon, the new moon and the eighth day of the fortnights of waxing and waning moon. They are regarded as the days for fasting. The early Buddhists held meetings of the Order on these days. One of these days was meant for expounding dharma and recitation of pāṭimokkha.

     On these days the lay followers observed the eight precepts (aṣṭaśīla), namely, abstinence from (1) killing, (2) stealing, (3) incelibacy, (4) lying (5) intake of liqour (6) eating food after mid-day (7) dancing, singing, music, using garlands, perfumes, unguents, ornaments, and (8) using high and luxurious seats and beds.

Vinaya. Mahāvagga. II. 4-6

prātihārya [pāṭihāriya] extraordinary occurrence, miracle. Three kinds of miracles are ascribed to the Buddha, namely, ṛddhi [iddhi], ādeśanā [ādesanā] and anuśāsanī [anusāsanī] which mean possessing superhuman power, faculty of mind reading, and miracles through teaching such as changing an evil person into a good person, respectively.

AV. XIII. 111-115. MST. V. 22.

pratimokṣa or prātimokṣa [pāṭimokkha] Moral code for the Buddhist monks and nuns in the Vinaya. Prati, stands for towards and mokṣa for release. Pratimokṣa is meant for discipline. It deals with the offences of monks and nuns. The literary text containing this code is known as the Pātimokkha. It enlists more than two hundred offences arranged in descending order of seriousness. The recitation of the code takes place in every monastery before an assembled community of fully ordained monks on every full moon and new moon day. A guilty monk or nun has to

confess the offence. He has to undergo a penalty or expiation matching the gravity of the offence. The monk or nun is released from the offence by confession and penance.

pratisaṃkhyāna-bala [paṭisankhāna-bala] power of reflection. The power of reflection makes an aspirant understand that bad conduct on three levels of deeds, words and thoughts yields bad fruits in the present as well as future life. As a result of thinking on these lines, the aspirant gives up bad conduct and follows good conduct that purifies his heart.

AS. I. 147; III. 541. MST. XVI. 100.

pratisaṃvid or pratisaṃvidā [paṭisambhidā] analytical knowledge. The analytical knowledge is fourfold, namely, analytical knowledge with regard to meaning (artha) [attha]; with regard to the doctrine, to reasons, conditions or causal relations (dharma) [dhamma]; with regard to etymology (nirukti) [nirutti]; and intellect that perceives the things in the above mentioned triple context (pratibhāna) [paṭibhāna].

AS. Nidāna. 48; IV. 567. MST. IV. 18.

pratītya-samutpāda [paṭicca-samuppāda] The formula of the Dependent Origination. The formula of the Dependent Origination is one of the vital notions in Buddhism. Pratītya [paṭicca] means 'because of' or 'dependent upon', and samutpāda [samuppāda] means 'arising' or 'origination.' Thus Pratītyasamutpāda means 'arising because of' or 'Dependent Origination'. It is also known as a formula of causality. The formula is 'If there is this, then there appears that'. In other words it is mutually interdependent conditionality.

     Pratītyasamutpāda consists of twelve links -- the causes and effects which are interdependent, technically called as

paccaya and paccayuppanna. (for details, see Appendix H, Paccayā). The formula of the Dependent Origination explains the process of birth and death.

The twelve links in the formula are

(1) avidyā [avijjā],
(2) saṃskāra [saṅkhāra],
(3) vijñāna [viññāṇa],
(4) nāmarūpa,
(5) ṣaḍāyatana [saḷāyatana],
(6) sparśa [phassa],
(7) vedanā,
(8) tṛṣṇā [taṇhā],
(9) upādāna,
(10) bhava,
(11) jāti, and
(12) jarā-maraṇa.

(1) avidyā [avijjā] nescience, ignorance

Avidyā means the ignorance of the Four Noble Truths, namely, the truth of suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the way to its cessation. Avidyā also stands for the ignorance of the past, of the future, and of both of them as well. Ignorance regarding the Dependent Origination is also known as avidyā. It clouds the right view and hence the living-beings are deluded and are unable to comprehend that every thing is impermanent, subject to suffering and without soul. They are not aware of the real nature of things.

     Ignorance is considered as beginningless. It is the root cause of evil and suffering. Even greed and hatred, the other two roots of evil are based on ignorance. No wonder, all unwholesome states of mind are rooted in it. Ignorance

binds the living beings to the cycle of birth and death. The wheel of life is set into motion due to ignorance. The Buddha says, "Those who have destroyed delusion and broken through the dense darkness will wander no more." In brief, when ignorance is removed all causality ceases to be.

     From ignorance arises saṃskāra. Ignorance is the first link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. It is enumerated as one of the cankers (āsrava), proclivities and fetters. According to Buddhaghoṣa, avidyā belongs to the past life of an individual.

(2) saṃskāra [saṅkhāra] formation

Saṃskāra is the second link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. It is a term with multiple meanings and hence it should be understood in the given context. As the second link in the chain of the Dependent Origination, saṃskāra means all meritorious, immoral and unshakable volitions which constitute karma leading to rebirth. The said volitions envelop the entire activity related to karma of body, speech and mind. Actions, either meritorious or immoral, bind an individual to the cycle of birth and death. However the activities of the Buddha and the Arhat-s, being devoid of ignorance, are not considered as saṃskāra. According to Buddhaghoṣa, saṃskāra belongs to the past life of a living being.

(3) vijñāna [viññāṇa] consciousness

Consciousness is enumerated as the fifth aggregate (skandha). It forms the third link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. It is conditioned by saṃskāra -- the cumulative effect of bodily, verbal and mental actions of an individual as reflected in his thoughts and wishes at the time of death. The six kinds of consciousness are: the eye consciousness, the ear consciousness, the nose

consciousness, the tongue consciousness, the body consciousness and the mind consciousness. When an individual dies, the four skandha-s, namely, rūpa, vedanā, saṃjñā, and saṃskāra-s are dissolved. But consciousness descends into the womb of the mother at the moment of conception and links past with present.

     In the Abhidhamma nineteen types of rebirth consciousness are described. The resultant consciousness is of thirty-two types. The rebirth consciousness is pure. Consciousness and name and form, that is, mind and matter coexist. The former conditions the latter.

(4) nāmarūpa [nāmarūpa] mind and matter, individuality

Nāmarūpa forms the fourth link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. Nāma comprises the four mental groups, namely, feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness. These groups combined with the material principle make the separate identity of an individual. The karma-resultant feeling, perception, and also a few karma-resultant functions are denoted by nāma in the context of its role as the fourth link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination.

     Rūpa means form, that is, matter. It denotes body, sex and the seat of consciousness. These arise with the relinking consciousness. The body is made of four elements, namely, the element of extension, of cohesion, of heat and of motion together with smell, taste, appearance or colour and nutritive essence.

     Rūpa has material vital force. All living beings survive due to vitality of consciousness and vitality of matter. The sex (bhāvarūpa) determines the physique, organs, behaviour and characteristics in male and female. According to Buddhaghoṣa, the seat of consciousness is heart. Nāma and rūpa are conditioned by consciousness.

 

(5) ṣaḍāyatana [saḷāyatana] the six bases, spheres

Ṣaḍāyatana is the fifth link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. Ṣaḍāyatana comprises six sense organs and their six objects, namely, eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind; forms, sounds, odours, tastes, tangible things, and ideas. The sense-objects collide with their respective sense-organs and thus arise the six kinds of consciousness.

(6) sparśa [phassa] contact

Contact is the sixth link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. The conjunction of the sense-bases, sense-objects and the resultant consciousness is known as contact. It leads to cognition through sensation and perception. It does not imply physical impact. Contact occupies the first place in the constant mental concomitants of consciousness (cetasika-s). Contact is the common cetasika for good and evil minds. It gives rise to six kinds of consciousness, namely, visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, and mind-consciousness. The Buddha says, "Because of eye and forms, visual consciousness arises; contact is the conjunction of the three. Because of ear and sounds arises auditory consciousness; because of nose and odours arises olfactory consciousness; because of tongue and sapids arises gustatory consciousness; because of body and touch arises tactile consciousness; because of mind and mental objects arises mind consciousness. The conjunction of these three is contact."

Contact can be classified as

(A) that which takes place due to sensorial reaction, and
(B) that which is a conceptual impression.

     Contact is one of the four nutriments. It is conditioned by six sense-bases and it conditions feeling.

(7) vedanā [vedanā] feeling

Vedanā (feeling) means receiving impressions of pain, pleasure or indifference. It is one of the five aggregates, one of the seven mental factors and the seventh link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. Feeling is a mental state associated with all types of consciousness. With regard to the contact of six senses, feeling is known as of six kinds, namely, feeling associated with seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, bodily impression, and mental impression.

     Another classification comprises five classes of feeling. It is based on the nature of the feeling. The five classes of feelings denote

(A) bodily agreeable feeling,
(B) bodily disagreeable feeling,
(C) mentally agreeable feeling,
(D) mentally disagreeable feeling, and
(E) indifferent feeling termed as upekṣā, that is, equanimity.

     According to the Abhidhamma, there is only one type of consciousness accompanied by pain, only one accompanied by happiness, two connected with an unpleasurable feeling and eighty-five connected with either pleasurable or indifferent feeling. The bliss in the nirvāṇa is not associated with any kind of feeling because it does not arise out of the enjoyment of any pleasurable object; it is relief from suffering. Feeling is conditioned by contact. It gives birth to craving.

(8) tṛṣṇā [taṇhā] craving

The literal meaning of tṛṣṇā is thirst. Craving or attachment is called tṛṣṇā because the urge for an object or craving is similar to that of a thirsty person. Craving is the root, that

 

is, cause of all suffering and the end of craving is the end of the cycle of birth and death. Craving is mentioned as of three kinds, namely, craving for sensual desires (kāma tṛṣṇā), craving for existence (bhava-tṛṣṇā) and craving for non-existence (vibhava-tṛṣṇā). Craving for existence and craving for non-existence are known as attachment to realms of form and attachment to formless realms, respectively. Vibhava-tṛṣṇā is sometimes interpreted as clinging to wealth.

     The six senses give rise to six kinds of craving corresponding to their objects, namely, form, sound, odour, taste, bodily impressions, and mental impressions. Each of these being internal and external, twelve kinds of cravings are enumerated. Each related to the past, the present and the future they become one hundred and eight. Craving is the eighth link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. It is conditioned by feeling and conditions grasping. Craving is associated with the present of an individual.

     In the Mahāparinibbāṇa Sutta, Lord Buddha says "The ārya [ariya] persons have crossed the deep and wide river of craving (tṛṣṇā) [taṇhā] by building the bridge of Noble Insight (ārya mārga) [ariyamaggañāṇa], leaving behind the marshy grounds of defilements. The non-ārya persons have yet to build rafts to cross the river. The wise ārya persons who have crossed the river of craving need not make rafts any more."

(9) upādāna [upādāna] grasping

Craving is a mental chase of an object for its possession. Upādāna is intense craving. It corresponds to an action for the sake of a desired object. Grasping is of four kinds, namely, clinging to sensuous desires, clinging to views, attachment to rites and rituals, and wrong notion about the

 

self. The last two come under false views. To consider alms and offerings worthless and to be unaware about the results of good and evil actions is known as clinging to views. Attachment to rites and rituals is due to wrong notion that they purify an individual. The wrong notion about the self and egocentric views arise from the concept of self. Grasping is the ninth link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. It is conditioned by craving and it conditions becoming.

(10) bhava [bhava] becoming

Bhava means becoming. It has two aspects, namely, wholesome and unwholesome actions which constitute karma (karmabhava), and the different planes of existence, that is, upapattibhava. The karmabhava comprises ignorance, karma formations, craving, grasping and process of becoming. The upapattibhava comprises karma-results, namely, consciousness, mind and matter, six bases, contact and feeling. Karma-formation is associated with the past birth whereas the karmabhava deals with the present life. The three planes of existence are the realm of desire, the realm of form and the formless realm. Bhava is the tenth link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. It is conditioned by grasping. The karmabhava conditions future birth.

(11) jāti [jāti] birth

Jāti means birth. It comprises the conception of a sentient-being, its existence, arising of groups, namely, corporeality, feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness and also arising of the sense organs. In short, jāti can be described as arising of the psycho-physical phenomena. It is the eleventh link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. It is conditioned by becoming and it conditions old age and death.

(12) jarāmaraṇa [jarāmaraṇa] old age and death

Birth, old age and death are sufferings. Birth conditions old age and death. Death takes place due to four reasons, namely, expiry of life-span; cessation related to forces, combination of these two reasons; and untimely death due to kārmic force (upacchedaka karma). It can be compared to extinction of the flame of a lamp due to exhaustion of oil; burning up of the wick; combination of these two and an external cause such as a breeze, etc. Jarāmaraṇa is the twelfth link in the chain of the formula of the Dependent Origination. It is conditioned by
birth.

AS. Nidāna. 27; I. 141, 144, 146, 350, 367; III. 495, 511-513, 520, 526. CMA. V. 219-223; V. 292, 303. DN. Brahmajāla, Dasuttara, Mahānidāna, Saṅgīti. MK. XXIV. 8, 40. MN. Ānāpānasati, Bahudhātuka, Chachakka, Cūḷasīhanāda, Cūḷavedalla, Dhātuvibhaṅga, Madhupiṇḍika, Mahāpuṇṇama, Mahāsaḷāyatanika, Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhaya, Sabbāsava, Sammādiṭṭhi. SD. VII. 234. SN. Bhava, Esanādi, Nirodha, Samudaya, Taṅhā, Vipassi. SVP. VI. 33.

prativedha [paṭivedha] penetration. Prativedha is insight into the dharma. It is different from the learning of scriptures or practice.

AS. I. 154. CMA. I. 24. MN. Dhātuvibhaṅga. MST. XI. 55, 59; XIX. 164. SN. Avijjā.

pudgala [puggala] an individual, self. Pudgala stands for an individual entity as opposed to a group. It signifies a sentient being who is a mere combination of material as well as mental processes. According to one etymology, human beings are called pudgala-s because they have to undergo afflictions in hell due to their evil actions. [Pun ti vuccati nirayo tasmin galantīti puggalā.]

AS. III. 484. CMA. IV. 179. MK. XVI. 2-3. MP. I. 1; II. 22-24. MST. VI. 25; XI. 56, 58, 59; XII. 81; XVIII. 148-149, 151-152; XIX. 166; XX-XXI. 170. SN. Puggala.

punarbhava [punabbhava] rebirth. A living being is composed of five aggregates (skandha-s), namely, form, feeling, perception, mental formations and consciousness. These aggregates are always in a process of combining, dissolving and recombining. When a man dies these aggregates are dissolved. The upādāna and karma are two properties inherent in living beings. At death the five aggregates no longer exist in combination. But the upādāna, that is, clinging to existence continues to exist, and the karmic force remains undisturbed by the disintegration of the physical vehicle. A new existence is produced by upādāna. However, it is the karmic force that determines whether the being will be in the form of a human being, an animal, insect, God, Brahmā and likewise.

     There is no soul which passes from one life to another. Each life is the karmic effect of the previous life and the cause of the one that follows. The karma is the result of craving which is an outcome of ignorance. Due to unfulfilled craving man desires for life and is born again. The appearance of the psycho-physical phenomena is conditioned by causes prior to birth.

     Three types of consciousness function in a dying man's consciousness at the moment of death. They are rebirth linking consciousness [paṭisandhi-citta], the current of life continuum [bhavaṅga] and consciousness disconnecting the present life [cuti-citta]. At the last moment of the present life the rebirth linking consciousness arises. It remains for five thought-moments [javana] in the course of cognition and sinks down into the current of life continuum [bhavaṅga]. At the end of bhavaṅga, the consciousness disconnecting the present life [cuti-citta] arises. It

disconnects the present life and sinks down into the current of life continuum [bhavaṅga]. At the end of that bhavaṅga another rebirth-linking consciousness arises in the next life. From this moment it is the new existence, the new life.

     Rebirth takes place without anything transmigrating from one life to another. If the flame of a lamp is kindled from another one, one cannot say that one flame has passed over to the other flame. If a teacher teaches a verse to his pupil, the verse itself does not pass over from the teacher to pupil. In the same way rebirth takes place without anything transmigrating.

     Life and death is a series such as the day and night, states of waking and sleeping. Just as the movement of a wave goes forward and not the substance, so there is rebirth without the soul. The body perishes and the force related to karma manifests itself into another existence which is called rebirth. The last thought-moment of the present life perishes conditioning another thought-moment in the next life. Nothing is transmigrated.

     The Buddhist tradition does not believe in the passing of a soul from one body to another. It is force of action resulting from the actions that passes from one life to another. It is the karmic force (karma) combined with upādāna, 'clinging to existence' that functions as the connecting link between past, present and future bodies of each living being.

CMA. III. 122-128; V. 223-227. MP. II. 39-40.

S

Sabhāpati/Sahaṃpati/Sahāṃpati, Sahāpati brahmā. Sahā means the earth, the name of the world-system. The Sanskrit root sah means to endure. The world is full of suffering. The inhabitants of the world have to endure the sufferings. Hence it is called Sahā. Sahāṃpati Brahmā is the Lord who governs the Sahā lokadhātu.

AS. I. 119. JK. III. 212. LV. VI. 50-51. MN. Bodhirājakumāra.

śaikṣa [sekha] a learner. The term means one who pursues training (śikṣā). The threefold training consists of that in morality (adhiśīla-śikṣā), in higher mentality (adhicitta-śikṣā) and in higher wisdom (adhiprajñā-śikṣā). 'Stream-enterers', 'once-returners', and 'never-returners' are called śaikṣa as they need to undergo a training. The Arhat-s are called aśaikṣa-s (adepts) because they do not need it. Ānanda lived as a learner (śaikṣa) till the Buddha was alive.

DN. Mahāparinibbāna. SN. Padesa.

samādhi [samādhi] concentration. The term samādhi is derived from sam + ā + dhā which means to fix firmly. It is the one-pointedness of mind. It is concentration of mind on one single object and exclusion of everything else. It results in the development of wholesome mind, tranquillity and happiness. The practice of right concentration is the concentration on a suitable object. The aim of such concentration is attainment of happiness and peacefulness, and freedom from defilements. There are three categories of concentraion based on its intensity:

temporary concentration (kṣaṇika) [khaṇika]-samādhi,
proximate or neighbourhood concentration (upacāra)-samādhi, and
ecstatic concentration (arpaṇa) [appanā]-samādhi.

     The kṣaṇika-samādhi means concentration on the chosen object on a moment to moment basis. This is the initial stage of samādhi. In this momentary concentration delight and happiness may not arise in the beginning. However, at a further stage the aspirant is able to direct his concentration to the object. Then arise the tranquillity

and serenity of mind followed by delight and happiness.

     A stage comes when the aspirant concentrates on the image of the object without perceiving the object through the sense organ of seeing, that is, with closed eyes. This acquired image or the visualised image of the meditation object is called as uggaha-nimitta. It is the mental replica of the object.

     In upacāra samādhi the defilements are arrested, the concentrated mind develops a conceptualised image [paṭibhāga nimitta] which is a result of the concentration on the visualized image. The conceptualised image has neither colour nor form.

     In the arpaṇa samādhi the mind remains steady on the object of concentration throughout the day. The aspirant overcomes defilements. He becomes absorbed in dhyāna and enjoys calmness and serenity. This kind of samādhi is the highest level of concentration. Samādhi is one of the five spiritual powers, one of the seven factors of enlightenment and it is the name for morality, concentration and wisdom in the Eightfold Noble Path.

MN. Samādhibhāvanā. CMA. IV. 167-170. DN. Mahāparinibbāna. MP. I. 30, 36; IV. 306. MN. Mahācattārisaka. MST. XVIII. 142. SG. XIII. 48-63. VM. III. 70-72.

saṃyojana [saṃyojana] fetters. Sam + yuj means to bind firmly. Hence saṃyojana means that which binds. The ten fetters in the Suttanta method are

(1) illusion about the soul (satkāya dṛṣṭi) [sakkāya-diṭṭhi],
(2) sceptical doubt (vicikitsā) [vicikicchā],
(3) attachment to rules and rituals (śīlavrata-parāmarśa) [sīlabbata parāmāsa],

(4) sensuous craving (kāmarāga) [kāmarāga],
(5) aversion (pratigha) [paṭigha],
(6) clinging to the realms of form (rūpa-rāga) [rūparāga],
(7) clinging to the formless realms (arūparāga) [arūparāga],
(8) pride (māna) [māna],
(9) restlessness (auddhatya) [uddhacca], and
(10) ignorance (avidyā) [avijjā].

     The first three fetters are known as trīṇi saṃyojanāni, the three fetters. The first five fetters are known as (avarabhāgiya) [orambhāgiya] lower fetters because they pertain to the sensuous world.

     The latter five are known as ūrdhvabhāgiya [uddhambhāgiya], the higher fetters because they pertain to the realms of form and the formless realms.

     Satkāya-dṛṣṭi means to believe in the existence of a permanent entity -- the soul of the living-beings. Vicikitsā means to have doubts about the Buddha, the dharma, the saṅgha, the disciplinary rules, the past, the future, both the past and the future, and the Dependent Origination.

     The stream-enterer (srotāpanna) eradicates the first three fetters. In addition to the eradication of these three, the 'once-returner' (sakṛdāgāmī) uproots the fourth and the fifth fetters in their gross form. The 'non-returner' (anāgāmī) has completely uprooted these five fetters. The Arhat is totally free from each and every fetter.

     A different enumeration of saṃyojana-s is found in the Abhidhamma method. It is as follows

(1) sensuous craving (kāmarāga),
(2) anger (pratigha) [paṭigha],
(3) pride (māna),
(4) illusion about the self (dṛṣṭi),

(5) sceptical doubts (vicikitsā),
(6) false views (śīlavrata-parāmarśa),
(7) desire for existence (bhavarāga),
(8) jealousy (īrṣyā) [issā],
(9) avarice (mātsarya) [macchariya], and
(10) ignorance (avidyā).

AS. I. 349, 357; III. 474; IV. 563; CMA. VII. 268-269; IX. 362-363. DN. Saṅgīti. MN. Mahāmālukya. SN. Orambhāgiya, Udhambhāgiya.

saṅgha [saṅgha] Buddhist Order of monks. The term Saṅgha stands for the community of the ordained men (bhikṣu-s) [bhikkhu-s], and women (bhikṣuṇī-s) [bhikkhunī-s]. Bhikṣu means one who lives by alms. The Buddha addressed his monks as Bhikkhu-s. They were also designated us śrāmaṇera [sāmaṇera] and śramaṇa [samaṇa]. The term śramaṇa comes from śram, to toil. A śrāmaṇera is a male ordained candidate who has not yet received all the precepts. Those who entered the stream (mārga) leading to Arhatship were known as ārya. The great disciples who heard the Law from the Buddha were known as hearers (śrāvaka-s) and were afterwards called sthavira-s and became Arhat-s. A male lay-believer who, after taking refuge in the three treasures, continued to be a householder was known as an upāsaka and female lay believer was known as an upāsikā.

     Śākyamuni delivered his first sermon in Vārāṇasī to the five ascetics with whom he earlier practised austerities. The Buddha said, "A man that stands alone, having decided to follow the truth may be weak and slip back into his old ways. Therefore, stand together, help one another, and strengthen one another's efforts. Be like unto brothers; one in love, in holiness and in your zeal for truth. Spread the truth and preach the doctrine in all directions, so that in

the end all living beings will be citizens of the kingdom of righteousness." This was the beginning of the saṅgha. Yasas brought along with him other followers and number of the members of saṅgha increased to sixty.

Admission to Saṅgha

Admission to saṅgha in early times was not ceremonial. The Buddha used to say "ehi " (come, follow me). Later on, those who were thus admitted by him could admit others to the Order. A layman had to complete at least fifteen years of age to become a novice. For the admission to the full monkhood, the novices had to be at least twenty years of age. Admission to saṅgha consisted of two stages marked by two rites, namely, pravrajyā and upasaṃpadā.

     Pravrajyā [pabbajjā] is going forth from home, that is renunciation. The term pravrajyā refers to the admission of a novice. It was the first step towards monkhood. He who was admitted was known as novice (śrāmaṇera) or navako bhikkhu, a new monk. He could be admitted only after seeking consent from his parents. The senior monk could admit him without presenting before any formal conclave, and after admission he was associated with a religious teacher (upādhyāya).

     The novice had to shave his hair; he had to put on three yellow ragged garments (tri-cīvara) and repeat the following formula three times.

I take refuge in the Buddha [buddhaṃ saraṇam gacchāmi].
I take refuge in the dhamma [dhammaṃ saraṇam gacchāmi].
I take refuge in the Order [saṅgham saraṇam gacchāmi].

     He, the novice, was further given instruction in the ten precepts daśa-śīla or sikkhāpada which consisted of ten abstinences [veramaṇī]. (For details see under śīla.)

     Upasampadā stands for higher ordination, that is, admission to full monkhood. Admission to full monkhood was a formal ceremony. After the upasamapadā ceremony was performed, the novice would be called a bhikṣu. He had to observe 227 rules according to the Theravāda tradition. The novice had to appear before a saṅgha of at least ten monks. Before the admission he would receive instructions from a learned monk (ācārya) [ācariya] and upādhyāya [upajjhāya] the teacher for five years after his admission in the saṅgha. The first instructor would inform the saṅgha that the novice is ready for admission. The novice provided with an alms-bowl and yellow garments would present himself to the saṅgha. His right shoulder would be bare and the left would be covered by an upper garment.

     The novice would bow down to the assembled monks, would take a seat on the ground, raising his joined hands, would ask for the admission to the full monkhood (upasaṃpadā) uttering the following words thrice. "I entreat the saṅgha for full monkhood. Have compassion on me and uproot me from the world." [ullumpatu mām]

     Then the novice would be asked whether he had obtained permission from his parents, whether he had completed twenty years, whether he possessed an alms-bowl and vestments, whether he was in the royal service. Questions regarding his name and his teacher's name were asked and if the answers were appropriate, he was admitted to the saṅgha.

     The novice was further made aware regarding the four resources (niśraya) [nissaya] that hereafter were to be provided by the laity, and four prohibitions (akaraṇīyāni) were prescribed to him. The four resources are (1) broken morsels given in alms for food, (2) rags from a dustbin for clothes, (3) roots of trees for an abode, and (4) putrefying

liquid excretion of cows for medicine. The four prohibitions [pārājika-āpatti], are offences regarding sexual misconduct, taking anything which is not given, depriving a human being of his life and falsely claiming the attainments of a perfected saint. He was further handed over to the upādhyāya, the preceptor for learning the doctrine.

     If the novice would commit any of the four forbidden acts [pārājika āpatti], he would be expelled from the saṅgha. There were thirteen offences regarded as saṅghādisesā āpatti. These required formal participation of the saṅgha in the process of making him free from the guilt of transgression.

     The monk had to bind himself with the following rules: (1) wearing garments donated by laymen, (2) possessing only three clothes, a girdle, bowl, razor, needle, and water-strainer, (3) going around for alms and collecting the food in a wooden bowl, (4) eating only mid-day meal, (5) fasting on four prescribed days, (6) staying at one place in the rainy season, (7) avoiding a recumbent posture, and (8) paying visit to cremation ground for meditation on the corruption of the body.

     The saṅgha had to discharge threefold functions, namely, preaching the doctrine, guiding people to the doctrine so that they may attain enlightenment, and to transmit the teachings of the Buddha in tradition of precepts and disciples.

     The saṅgha is described as an incomparable field of merit to the world. It embraces the virtuous. Hence it is said, "Of good conduct is the saṅgha; of upright conduct is the saṅgha, of the just is the saṅgha; of the law-abiding is the saṅgha. It is a holy alliance in which the bhikṣu-s bind together to preach the good."

AS. Nidānakathā. 7; III. 484. MN. Dakkhiṇāvibhaṅga, Vattha. SN. Saṅghadhama. Vinaya. Mahāvagga. I. 2.4-6; II. 6.5.

sapta viśuddhi [sattavisuddhi] seven stages of purity. The seven stages of purity are

(1) purity with regard to morality (śīla viśuddhi),
(2) purity with regard to mind (citta viśuddhi),
(3) purity with regard to view (dṛṣṭi viśuddhi),
(4) purity with regard to overcoming doubt (kāṅkṣā vitaraṇa viśuddhi),
(5) purity through knowledge and vision with regard to path and non-path (mārgāmārga jñāna darśana viśuddhi),
(6) purity through knowledge and vision with regard to progress on the path (pratipadā jñānadarśana viśuddhi), and
(7) purity with regard to knowledge and vision (jñānadarśana viśuddhi).

The ultimate goal of purity is deliverance that precedes all kinds of clinging.

(1) śīla-viśuddhi [sīla-visuddhi] purity with regard to morality

Four kinds of morality are prescribed for the bhikṣu-s: purity with regard to disciplinary code, to the sense restraint, to livelihood, and to the necessities of life. These are collectively called śīla-viśuddhi. A layman has to observe five or more moral rules for purity with regard to morality.

(2) (citta-viśuddhi) [citta-visuddhi] purity of mind

Citta Viśuddhi comprises eight absorptions (dhyāna) and proximate concentration (upacāra samādhi). The one-

pointedness of the mind which is a consequence of inhibiting the hindrances is known as citta-viśuddhi. As the aspirant concentrates on the visualised image of an object, he forms a conceptualised image of the same. Constant concentration of the latter leads him to the attainment of the proximate concentration. The hindrances, namely, sensual desire, hatred, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and indecision disappear, and instead appear one-pointedness, joy, initial application, happiness and sustained application. The aspirant enters into the arpaṇa [appanā] samādhi -- the ecstatic concentration. Absorbed in dhyāna, he experiences calm and quiet state of the one-pointedness of mind. This state of mind attained after disappearance of hindrances is known as purity of mind.

(3) dṛṣṭi-viśuddhi [diṭṭhi-visuddhi] purity with regard to view

Dṛṣṭi viśuddhi means to see things as they really are, that is, to analyse things and to know that the personality is mind and coporeality nāmarūpa and there is no permanent entity such as the self.

(4) kāṅkṣā vitaraṇa-viśuddhi (kaṃkhāvitaraṇa-visuddhi) purity through overcoming doubt

Purity through overcoming doubt means understanding of the mind and matter, real nature of the being, which is free from the notion of self and overcoming the doubts regarding the past, present and future.

     The aspirant realises that the so called 'I', that is, personality is just mind and matter which are subject to constant change. This understanding makes him free from the wrong notion of a permanent soul. He comprehends that craving, ignorance, grasping, karma and physical food are the causes of his present existence. They have

conditioned the present and the present will condition the future. This knowledge which is gained through meditation removes all doubts regarding the past, the present and the future.

(5) mārgāmārgajñānadarśana-viśuddhi [maggāmaggañāṇadassana-visuddhi] Purity of knowledge and vision regarding the right path and the wrong path

The purity of knowledge, and vision of what is the right path and what is the wrong one is the fifth stage of viśuddhi. It indicates the understanding of discrimination between the right path and the wrong path. The aspirant contemplates on the real nature of life. He contemplates on the five groups of existence. Through meditation he strengthens the knowledge of the Four Noble Truths and the Dependent Origination. In the insight practice he experiences effulgent light emitting from his body and the states such as happiness, delight, rapture, tranquillity, energy, knowledge, determination and awareness. On account of these experiences the aspirant becomes happy and develops a liking towards them. However he soon realises that they are just outcomes of the insight and not the constituents of the right path; they may even obstruct his spiritual progress. Thus he comes to know the right path.

(6) pratipadā jñānadarśana viśuddhi [paṭipadā ñāṇadassana visuddhi] purity by knowledge and vision regarding path-progress

This is the sixth stage on the path of purity. It is the insight in kinds of knowledge. When the aspirant becomes aware of the right path he mediates on the arising of all conditioned things [udaya ñāṇa] and passing away [vaya ñāṇa]. He focusses his mind on the dissolution of things

[bhaṅga ñāṇa]. Having seen the mind and matter in a state of constant flux, he becomes aware that all dissolving things are fearful [bhaya ñāṇa].

     The aspirant experiences the misery and vanity [ādīnava ñāṇa] of the fearful world and hence gets a feeling of aversion [nibbidā ñāṇa]. A strong will for deliverance arises in him [muccitukamyatā ñāṇa]. He resumes his meditation on the three characteristics of existence, namely, impermanency, suffering, and no-soul [paṭisaṅkhā ñaṇa]. Consequenty he develops equanimity towards all things [sankhārupekkhā ñāṇa].

(7) jñānadarśana viśuddhi [ñāṇadassana-visuddhi] purity of knowledge and vision

Jñānadarśana Viśuddhi is the seventh stage of purity. The divine eye -- the insight pertaining to the consciousness of the path of stream-entrance, once-returning and non-returning or the Arhathood is known as the purity of knowledge and vision. With an unfailing urge for deliverance the aspirant concentrates on one of the characteristics, namely, impermanence, suffering, and non-self. The insight cultivated is sustained till he realises nirvāṇa for the first time.

CMA. IX. 345-355. MN. Rathavinīta.

śarīra [sarīra] relics, the cremated remains of the Buddha. The ashes of Śākyamuni divided into eight parts were enshrined in stūpa-s. The physical remains of the Buddha are known as the relics of the physical body while his teachings are known as the relics of the dharma-kāya.

satkāya dṛṣṭi [sakkāya diṭṭhi] belief in soul, personality belief. Satkāya dṛṣṭi means the belief that in one or other aggregate there is a permanent entity. It is the first among ten fetters (saṃyojanāni). The four types of personality

belief are: personality or soul to be identical with form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness; the belief that the soul contains in them; that the soul is independent of them; that the soul is the possessor of them. When these four types are applied to each of the five aggregates the personality belief totals up to twenty types. Personality belief is the first bond which has to be broken on entering the path. It keeps one away from nirvāṇa. Hence it has to be abandoned.

AS. I. 200, 206, 354, 361, 366; III. 488. MN. Chachakka, Cūḷasīhanāda, Sabbāsava.

sattva [satta] living being. Sattva is a conventional term. Due to impermanence and impersonality of the phenomena the term is just a vyavahāra vacana [vohāra vacana] and should not be regarded as paramārthā vacana, that is, the ultimate language.

śikṣā [sikkhā] training. A disciple of the Buddha has to undergo threefold training. Training in morality (adhiśīlam) comprises right speech, right action and right livelihood. Training in concentration (adhicittaṃ) consists of right effort, right mindfulness and right concentration. Training in wisdom (adhiprajñaṃ) consists of right understanding and right thinking. The first corresponds to the Vinaya, the second to the Sutta and the third to the Abhidhamma.

AS. Nidāna. 43. DN. Saṅgīti. MST. XI. 55.

śikṣāpada [sikkhāpada] precepts. The five precepts (pañca śīla) are the moral commandments to be observed by laymen (upāsaka-s). These precepts are: not to kill, not to steal, not to be engaged in unlawful sexual conduct, not to lie, and not to intake intoxicants. (yāvajjīvaṃ prāṇātipātāt, adattādānāt, kāmaihi mithyācārāt, mṛṣāvādāt,

surāmaireyamadya-pramādasthānāt prativiramiṣyaṃ.)

     The ten precepts (daśa śīla) are prescribed for novices and monks. Besides the above five precepts, also included are abstinences from eating after midday; from singing and dancing; from using garlands, adornments and perfumes; from using luxurious beds; and from acceptance of gold, silver and other precious metals.

AS. I. 210, 379; III. 526. AN. Sikkhāpada. DN. Āṭānāṭiya, Saṅgīti. SN. Pañcasikkhāpada.

śīla [sīla] morality. Śīla is the foundation of Buddhism. It denotes virtuous conduct that consists of physical, mental and verbal actions. The earliest concept of śīla, that is, morality appeared in the form of the five precepts (pañca śīla), namely, abstinence from killing, stealing, non-chastity, falsehood and use of intoxicating drinks. Five more precepts were added to this list. They consist of abstaining from eating at forbidden times; from singing and dancing; from use of garlands, from perfumes and unguents; from use of a high and big bed; and from accepting gold and silver. Another list mentions abstinence from (1) killing; (2) taking what is not given; (3) non-chastity; (4) lying; (5) slander; (6) harsh speech; (7) frivolous talk; (8) covetousness; (9) ill will; and (10) holding wrong views.

     Morality has two aspects -- practice of the prescribed rules (cāritra śīla) [cāritta sīla] and avoidance of immoral actions (vāritra śīla) [vāritta sīla]. The morality with regard to right speech, right action and pure livelihood is known as prakṛti śīla. The rules prescribed for laymen and monks for proper behaviour are known as prajñapti śīla. The former is karmically wholesome morality and the latter is karmically neutral.

     Following the code of conduct prescribed for a monk

(pratimokṣa saṃvara śīla) [pātimokkha saṃvara sīla], control over the sense organs (indriya saṃvara śīla) [indriya saṃvara sīla]; purity of livelihood (ājīva pāriśuddhi śīla) [ājīva pārisuddhi sīla]; and morality with regard to the four requisites of the monks, namely, robes, alms-food, dwelling and medicine (pratyaya sanniśrita śīla) [paccaya sannissita sīla] constitute the four kinds of morality (catuṣpāriśuddhi śīla) [catupārisuddhi sīla].

     A Bodhisattva refrains from evil and performs good action. He cherishes compassion and loving kindness towards every living being whosoever breathes on the earth. He refrains from causing injury to any living-being, from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, false speech, harsh words, abusive language, slander and frivolous talk. Instead, he uses true and agreeable speech. His words are sweet and they are for harmony and concord. He avoids intoxicating liquors. He is free from covetousness and ill will. The Sigālovāda Sutta describes the concept of śīla in terms of duties towards a teacher, pupils, friends, monks, etc.

AS. I. 274; III. 541. DN. Āṭānāṭiya, Mahāsīhanāda. MN. Ākaṇkheyya, Bhayabherava, Dvedhāvitakka, Vattha. MP. II. 30-31; V. 303. SN. Bāhiya, Kuṇḍaliya, Sīla, Uttiya. VM. I. 1-47.

skandha [khandha] aggregates, components, groups of clinging, groups of existence. All conditioned phenomena are made of five aggregates. They are known as form (rūpaskandha), feeling (vedanā skandha), perception (saṃjñā skandha), mental formation (saṃskāra skandha) and consciousness (vijñāna skandha). Each of the five aggregates has five features, namely, the past, the present, the future, the gross, and the subtle. The aggregates constitute the body and mind of all sentient-beings in the realm of desire and the realm of form.

     The rūpaskandha means the four primary elements and corporeality depending on them.

     The vedanāskandha is made of six kinds of feeling due to six contacts in connection with forms, sounds, odours, sapids, tangibles, and mental objects. The saṃjñāskandha consists of six kinds of perceptions, namely, erception of forms, sounds, odours, sapids, tangibles, and mental objects.

     The saṃskāra skandha consists of six kinds of volitional states in connection with forms, sounds, odours, sapids, tangibles, and mental objects.

     The vijñānaskandha consists of six kinds of consciousness, namely, eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness and mind consciousness. The first aggregate, namely, the form is material. The other four are mental and are associated with functions of the mind. The aggregates are impermanent, non-substantial and intrinsically empty. Knowing this Avalokiteśvara could conquer sufferings.

CMA. VIII. 285. DN. Mahāparinibbāna. LPH. 147. MN. Cūḷasaccaka, cūḷavedalla, Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhaya. SN. Dhammacakkappavattana.

smṛtyupasthānāni [satipaṭṭhānā] foundations of mindfulness. Smṛti or sati means mindfulness and upasthāna or paṭṭhāna means base. Smṛtyupasthāna is a key concept in Buddhism. The threefold division of smṛtyupasthāna deals with the practice of equanimity whereas the fourfold division deals with meditation.

     The trīṇi smṛtyupasthānāni [tīṇi satipaṭṭhānāni] are three kinds of equanimity. The Buddha abides in three kinds of equanimity. He does not rejoice in the respect shown by believers. He is not worried about disbelief and he is neutral

in regard to belief or censure of others.

     The catvāri smṛtyupasthānāni [cattāro satipaṭṭhānā] are prerequisities of enlightenment. They form a system of meditative practice that develops mindfulness and insight. The mindful contemplation of the phenomena is focused on four objects, namely, body, feelings, consciousness, and mental objects. Therefore the term catvāri smṛtyupasthānāni comprises mindfulness in the contemplation of the body [kāyānupassanā], of feelings [vedanānupassanā], of consciousness [cittānupassanā], and of mental objects [dhammānupassanā]. The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta deals with the concept thoroughly.

CMA. VII. 278-279. DN. Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna. MST. XI. 58; XVIII. 135.

śraddhā [saddhā] faith, confidence. Śraddhā is devotion to the Buddha, the Dharma and the Saṅgha, based on conviction. Asaṅga defines śraddhā as serene joy at good qualities, desire to achieve an object and conviction. The mind is dictated by craving and hence is attached to objects which are the cause of pleasure. No wonder, it is unable to realise the reality. The power of confidence overcomes craving and takes the aspirant to the ultimate goal, hence it is an important factor in the practice of the Insight Meditation. Confidence is attained when doubt vanishes and the stage of 'stream-entry' is reached. Belief and clarity of mind are the essential features of confidence power. Confidence is not a blind faith; it is a wholesome mental factor. Unless the power of confidence is coupled with wisdom it does not give the desired result. It enables the aspirant to cross over the saṃsāra by enforcing the mind with determination and strength.

AS. I. 173, 225-226.

śrāvaka [sāvaka] a disciple, an aspirant in the Theravāda School, who makes an effort to attain Arhathood. The term śrāvaka is derived from śru, to hear and hence śrāvaka means a hearer, one who follows the teaching of the Buddha in order to get enlightenment. Originally the term was used for the 'great disciples' of Śākyamuni who heard the Law from him. The Hīnayāna is divided into Śrāvakayāna, the vehicle of the hearers and the Pratyekabuddhayāna, the vehicle of solitary Buddha-s. Kāśyapa or Mahākāśyapa, Upāli, Ānanda, Anuruddha and Kātyāyana are prominent among the eighty great disciples.

MST. XI. 69-70; XX-XXI. 175.

Sthaviravāda [Theravāda] the doctrine of the elders. Sthaviravāda is the oldest form of the Buddha's teachings. The true tradition transmitted by the Buddha is known as Theravāda, the old school that prevails in the Hīnayāna. Its teachings were systematised by five hundred holy elders (sthavira-s) [thera-s] who formed the first Buddhist Council soon after the Mahāparinirvāṇa of the Buddha. The assembled monks headed by Kāśyapa, also known as Mahākāśyapa chanted the teachings of the Buddha from their memory and thus they came to be known as the words of the elders. The Pāli Canon and its contents belong to the Theravāda tradition. Theravāda is also known as Southern Buddhism or Pāli Buddhism, Pāli being its language. Its emphasis is on one's own nirvāṇa and it believes in Śākyamuni -- the Buddha, and Maitreya -- the Bodhisattva. Theravāda prevails in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand and Cambodia. (See also under Buddhist Schools and Sects in the Introduction.)

stūpa [thūpa] relic, shrine. A stūpa is a Buddhist monument where the relics of Śākyamuni or other saints are preserved. The stūpa-s are of a particular shape. Generally they are

dome-shaped or mound shaped. In East Asia they are in the form of tower like pagodas. When the monument is erected over the relic of the Buddha such as bones, hair or teeth, it is known as dhātustūpa.

     King Ajātaśatru proposed to build a stūpa over the relic of the Buddha and so did the Licchavis and others. The claimants built eight stūpa-s in their respective territories. Two stūpa-s were erected over the vessel used in cremation and the ashes. Thus in Buddhism the cult of stūpa-s came into existence.

DN. Mahāparinibbāna. KH. Upavāṇattherapadānam. SD. I. 18; II. 68, 306-316. SG. VIII. 26.

Sukhāvatī the name of the Pure Land of the Jodo sect. Two Sukhāvatī-Vyūha-Sūtra-s describe Sukhāvatī, the world of Amitābha or Amitāyus. It is called Sukhāvatī because it is endowed with happiness. The inhabitants of this world are no more subject to afflictions; they enjoy the bliss of nirvāṇa. When Amitābha was a Bodhisattva called Dharmākara, he performed practices which fructified in the creation of Sukhāvatī. Along with Avalokiteśvara and Mahāsthāmaprāpta, Amitābha dwells in the centre of the above mentioned world, and illumines it with his radiance. Devotion to Amitābha and recitation of his name leads to rebirth in this Pure Land where the inhabitants listen to the teaching of Amitābha and enjoy bliss.

LSV. XVI-XVII. 33-36. SSV. III-VI. 91-96.

śūnya [suñña] and śūnyatā [suññatā] void, emptiness. Śūnya means void and śūnyatā means emptiness. Śūnyatā is a fundamental concept in Buddhism. In Theravāda the concept connotes the no-soul [anattā] doctrine. The concept of śūnyatā became prominent in the Mahāyāna, and Nāgārjuna shaped it into a middle way, that is, neither existence nor non-existence.

     Śūnyatā, the non-substantiality of a living being means that he is the union of the five aggregates (skandha-s), and beyond them he does not possess an absolute self. The skandha-s are intrinsically empty. The elements of existence (dharma-s) arise through the chain of the Dependent Origination and hence they cannot be said to have the unchanging nature attributed to the self in the Upaniṣads. Everything which arises is dependent on something else, is conditioned by something, and becomes the cause of something. There is no fixed substance in it and hence the true nature of everything is emptiness. So it is stated, "All dharma-s are devoid of self." (anātmānaḥ sarvadharmāḥ)

     The Prajñā Pāramitā Sūtra-s and the Hṛdaya Sūtra elucidate the concept effectively. In the Cūḷa Māluṅkya Sutta the unchanging substance is mentioned as one of the avyākṛta that is, the topic on which the answer is silence rather than discussion. It is stated in the Hṛdaya Sūtra, "O Śāriputra, form does not differ from the void and the void does not differ from the form. Form is the void, and void is the form. The same is the case with feelings, conceptions, mental formations and consciousness."

Laṅkāvatāra. 291. LPH. 148. MK. XVIII. 5; XXIV. 8, 18. MST. I. 6; XIV. 92. SPH. 153.

T

Tathāgata-garbha [ - ] Tathāgata-garbha is the embryo of the Buddha. It is one of the most important concepts in the Mahāyāna. It means that the inherent nature of all living beings is to attain enlightenment.

     The element of Buddhahood (Buddha-dhātu) is the intrinsic, eternal, and true nature of all living beings. Hence all living beings are intrinsically Buddha-s.

     The Tathāgata-garbha theory is based on the Ratnagotra vibhāga (also known as the Uttaratantra) ascribed to Maitreya. Some scholars ascribe it to Asaṅga. According

to the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, the Tathāgatagarbha is the true self of living-beings. In the Mahāyāna Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra, the Buddha says, "When I regard all beings with my Buddha eye, I see that hidden within the kleśa-s of greed, desire, anger and stupidity, there is seated augustly and unmovingly -- the Tathāgata's vision, and the Tathāgata's body ... All beings, though they find themselves with all sorts of kleśa-s, have a Tathāgatagarbha, the eternally unsullied, and replete with virtues not different from my own."

     The notion of Tathāgata-garbha is predominant in Zen Philosophy.

MST. IX. 43.

tathatā [tathatā] suchness. Tathatā means true nature of all things, the essence of all things. Tathatā is considered as the Ultimate Reality in the Mahāyāna mysticism. It is immanent in life, yet transcends its expression. It is beyond all concepts and distinctions, immovable and immutable.

MST. IX. 46. VC. XVII. 133.

traidhātuka [tedhātuka] the triple universe, division of the world into three parts in accordance with their properties. The divisions are the sensuous world (kāmadhātu), the world of forms (rūpadhātu), and the formless world (ārūpyadhātu) [āruppadhātu]. In the first division the living beings are dictated by their desires. In the second they have a physical form but they are free from desire. In the third division neither desire nor a physical form exists. Only a state of consciousness exists, and nothing else exists.

traividya [tevijja] one possessing triple knowledge. An Arhat is endowed with triple knowledge, hence he is known as traividya. The triple knowledge includes knowledge of

former births; knowledge of the future births of beings; and knowledge that uproots all depravities.

     Knowledge regarding impermanence, suffering and no-self is also known as triple knowledge.

LV. XXII. 289. MN. Tevijjavacchagotta. SD. V. 176.

trikāya [ - ] three bodies of the Buddha. Trikāya is a doctrine in the Mahāyāna. The three bodies are the three aspects of the Buddha. They are (1) dharmakāya, the law body, that is, the law or doctrine itself; (2) the saṃbhogakāya, the noumenal, the body of enjoyment that exists in the Pure Land, and manifests itself in the celestial spheres; and (3) the nirmāṇakāya or the rūpakāya, the phenomenal, the incarnated body, such as Śākyamuni. The concept of the bodies of the Buddha was developed by texts such as Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.

(1) dharmakāya [ - ] the Law body, truth body

Dharmakāya means the principle of Enlightenment embodied in the Buddha. It is considered as the highest of the bodies of the Buddha. The Tathāgata does not exist only in material body. The transcendental Buddha, the dharmakāya, is the spiritual body of the Buddha in contrast with his physical existence, that is, rūpakāya. The rūpakāya reduced to the relics is enshrined in the stūpa-s; the dharmakāya, on the other hand, is eternally present. The spiritual body is the doctrine itself, the ultimate truth, the true nature of all things, that is, suchness (tathatā). The Buddha said to Vesettha that the Tathāgata is the embodiment of truth or the truth-body 'Dharmakāya', and also 'one who has become truth', that is, dharmabhūta. He said to Vakkali, 'He who sees the dharma (truth), sees the Tathāgata; he who sees Tathāgata, sees the dharma'. Thus the concept of Dharmakāya is rooted in the Pāli texts of the Theravāda. It is the very essence of the Buddha, independent

of his physical form. The Vajracchedikā Sūtra says, The Buddha-s are to be known from the Law; for the Buddha-s have the Law body. (dharmato buddhā draṣṭavyā dharmakāyā hi nāyakāḥ)

(2) saṃbhogakāya [ - ] the enjoyment-body, the reward-body

The enjoyment-body is the superhuman body of the Buddha through which he enjoys Buddhahood. The enjoyment body has two forms. The first form is that which enjoys the Buddhahood that the Buddha has attained through his efforts. In this form the Buddha rejoices in the teachings of dharma in his Buddha-field. The second form of the enjoyment -- body is concerned with the teaching of the dharma, leading the human-beings to dharma, and realisation of the same.

     Amitābha and Bhaiṣajyaguru are examples of the enjoyment body. When he was a Bodhisattva by the name Dharmākara, Amitābha practised forty-eight vows and attained the Buddhahood in the realm known as Sukhāvatī. His teachings are beyond the limits of time and space. When he was a Bodhisattva, Bhaiṣajyaguru made twelve vows and became the Tathāgata. He teaches dharma in the realm of Pure Emerald Land. He saves the sentient beings from sufferings, both physical and mental, and dispels their ignorance.

(3) nirmāṇakāya [ - ] the manifest body, the transformed body

The appearance of a Buddha in a human form in a particular age and at a particular place for the sake of common people and the Bodhisattvas is known as the nirmāṇakāya. It can be defined as the assumed body. The Buddha-s who preceded the Śākyamuni, the Śākyamuni himself and Maitreya are the manifest bodies of a Buddha.

AVK. XIX. 144. MST. VIII. 33; IX. 47; XX-XXI. 173. SD. V. 194. Uttaratantra. I. 84-85. VC. XX. 137; XXVI. 141.

trilakṣaṇa [tilakkhaṇa] three characteristics of existence. Impermanence (anitya) [anicca], suffering (duḥkha) [dukkha] and non-self (anātma) [anattā] are the three characteristics of existence.

CMA. IX. 356. DP. XX. 5-7. Flower. XV. 395. JK. II. 119.

triloka [tiloka] three worlds. The three worlds are kāmaloka, rūpaloka and arūpaloka.

(1) kāmaloka [kāmaloka] the sensuous world

The sensuous world means the world of five senses. It consists of hells, the animal kingdom, the ghost realm, the demon-world, the realm of human beings, and the six lower worlds of Gods.

     Of these the first four are considered as unhappy states of existence (durgati) [duggati] and the others, happy ones (sugati). In the hell, that is, niraya the beings atone for their karma. Evil karma leads to the birth in the animal kingdom. The ghosts possess physical form which cannot be seen by the human eye. They live in places such as forests. The demons -- asura-s -- are unhappy beings who are deprived of light. Pain and pleasure both exist in the realm of the human beings.

     The lowest of the heavenly realm is known as the Cāturmahārājika [Cātummahārājika] which is the abode of the guardian deities of the four quarters of the sky. Trayastriṃśat [tāvatiṃsa] that is, thirty-three, is the celestial realm of thirty-three Gods headed by the King Śakra. Yāma is the realm belonging to Yama. The Sanskrit root tuṣ means to be happy. Hence, tuṣita [tusita], the realm

of delight is the plane of the satisfied beings. The Bodhisattva-s who are to be born as Buddha-s inhabit this plane.

(2) rūpaloka [rūpaloka] the world of form

The world of form, the second division of the threefold world, is considered to be above the world of desire. The inhabitants of this world have physical bodies. Their sense-faculties are temporarily withheld in the four absorptions. They are free from desires and sustain on light. The Gods who have practised certain dhyāna-s are the inhabitants of this world. It is linked to the four dhyāna-s.

     This world consists of sixteen realms pertaining to the four dhyāna-s as follows:

The first dhyāna
1. The realm of Brahmā's retinue
2. The realm of Brahmā's priests
3. The realm of Great Brahmā

The second dhyāna
4. The realm of the Gods of limited lustre
5. The realm of the Gods of infinite lustre
6. The realm of the radiant Brahmā Gods

The third dhyāna
7. The realm of the Brahmā Gods of minor aura
8. The realm of the Brahmā Gods of infinite aura
9. The realm of the Brahmā Gods of steady aura

The fourth dhyāna
10. The realm of Brahmā Gods of great reward
11. The realm of mindless beings
12. The pure abodes are the realms of Gods which are further subdivided into:

(A) The durable realm
(B) The serene realm
(C) The beautiful realm
(D) The clear-sighted realm
(E) The highest realm.

(3) Ārūpyaloka [Āruppaloka or Arūpaloka] world of formlessness

Ārūpyaloka means the spiritual world. This world has no perceptible form; it has no substance. One can reach this world through meditation. Those who have attained the four stages of formlessness inhabit this world. It is divided into four planes such as

(A) the sphere of the conception of infinite space (ākāśānantyāyatana) [ākāsānañcāyatana], that is, the realm in which nothing is substantial.
(B) the sphere of the conception of infinite consciousness (vijñānānantyāyatana) [viññāṇānañcāyatana], that is, the realm in which nothing is substantial;the realm in which consciousness alone exists.
(C) the sphere of the conception of nothingness (ākiṃcanyāyatana) [ākiñcaññāyatana], that is, the realm of non-existence.
(D) the sphere of neither perception nor non-perception -- (naivasaṃjñānāsaṃjñāyatana) [n'eva saññā nāsaññāyatana], that is, the realm where there is neither thought nor no-thought.

AS. I. 143. CMA. II. 148, 192-193; VI. 257. DN. Saṅgīti.

triratna [tiratana] three jewels, three gems. Triratna stands for the three venerable things for the followers of Buddhism. They are the Buddha, the Law discovered, realised and proclaimed by him (dharma), and the

congregation, that is, the Order of the Holy disciples (saṅgha).

AS. III. 484. BC. II. 22. MBA. III. 196.

triśaraṇam [tisaraṇa] three refuges. In Buddhism, the Buddha, the dharma [dhamma], and the Order, that is, saṅgha are considered as three refuges.

     The threefold formula as recited in Pāli is as follows:

Buddhaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
Dhammaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi
Saṅghaṃ saraṇaṃ gacchāmi

The recitation is treated as an initiation in Buddhism. The English version is:

"I seek refuge in the Buddha.
I seek refuge in the dhamma.
I seek refuge in the Order."

DN. Mahāparinibbāna. SN. Saṅghadhama.

Tuṣita [Tusita] heaven. Tuṣita is the name of the heaven of the contented. The name is derived from tuṣ which means to be satisfied. In this heaven the Bodhisattva awaits for the appropriate time to take birth as a human being before finally becoming a Buddha.

Flower. XXIII. 497-515. LV. IV. 23.

U

upāsaka [upāsaka] a lay disciple. A lay disciple observes the five precepts, namely, not to kill, not to steal, not to engage in improper sexual relation, not to lie, and not to intake intoxicants. On uposatha days, he observes in addition, five precepts which comprise of not eating food after the prescribed time, not using wreaths, ornaments, perfumes and not using a high or a broad bed. These are collectively known as aṣṭaśīla [aṭṭhasīla]. An upāsaka

makes efforts to follow the Eightfold Path according to his capacity.

upāsikā [upāsikā] a female lay disciple. An upāsikā is a female lay devotee who has faith in the three treasures, namely, the Buddha, the dharma, that is, the teaching of the Buddha, and the Saṅgha that is, the congregation of monks and nuns. She is required to observe the five precepts.

V

vaibhāṣika A follower of the Vaibhāṣika school. He follows teachings of the Mahāvibhāṣā, a commentary on the Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma.

Vaipulya Sūtra-s The Vaipulya Sūtra-s designate particular scriptures in the Mahāyāna known as dharma-s. The nine dharma-s are a series of books which have been composed at different periods and belong to different persuasions.

     The nine works are

(1) Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā,
(2) Saddharmapuṇḍarīka,
(3) Lalita-Vistara,
(4) Laṅkāvatāra,
(5) Suvarṇaprabhāsa,
(6) Gaṇḍavyūha,
(7) Tathāgataguhyaka or Tathāgataguṇajñāna,
(8) Samādhirāja,
(9) Daśabhūmīśvara.

MBA. III. 190. MST. IV. 16.

vaiśāradya [vesārajja] fearlessness. Vaiśāradya is a quality ascribed to a Buddha. The vaiśāradya-s are four, namely,

(1) the confidence arising out of realising all dharma-s,
(2) the confidence arising out of the knowledge that he is free from all defilements and delusions,
(3) the confidence arising out of his capacity to preach precisely and correctly the nature of karma and defilements, and
(4) the confidence arising out of asserting correctness of his way to emancipation.

MST. XVIII. 137. Uttaratantra. II. 8.

vihāra [vihāra] monastery, an abode. Vihāra means a secluded place. The term is conventionally used for a Buddhist monastery, that is, an abode for the members of a saṅgha. Vihāra-s were used either as permanent dwellings or as temporary shelters during the rainy season.

vijñapti [viññatti] intimation, proclamation. The term viññatti is used in Abhidhamma for bodily and vocal expressions. The bodily expression is known as kāya viññatti and verbal expression as vāci viññatti. They both are the means by which one communicates one’s ideas, feelings or attitudes. Both belong to the corporeality group.

vimukti [vimutti] liberation. There are three approaches to attain vimukti. These approaches are based on the three aspects of mind, namely, will, emotion and knowledge. Aspirants may adhere to determination, tranquillity or wisdom in order to attain liberation. Those who are endowed with determination consider all formations impermanent and attain the signless or conditionless liberation. Those who are endowed with tranquillity consider all formations as sufferings, and attain the desireless vimukti. Those who adhere to wisdom and consider all formations devoid of the self attain emptiness

or void. The first and the second are known as cetovimukti. The third is known as prajñā-vimukti which takes place after the eradication of the āsava-s of heart.

     Other classification of vimukti deals with five kinds of emancipation. They are

(1) Freedom from defilements for a long time due to sustained mental absorption. In this kind of emancipation the five hindrances (nīvaraṇa-s) are suspended during absorptions just as a pot thrown into the water pushes the moss aside. This kind of emancipation is known as vikkhambhana vimutti.
(2) Momentary freedom from the view that the conditioned phenomena are permanent, unchanging and have a soul. This kind of emancipation is obtained through contemplation upon the impermanent, soulless and everchanging nature of the phenomena. The emancipation is known as tadaṅga vimutti.
(3) Freedom attained through uprooting of defilements on attainment of the four mārga-s. In this state after the attainment of the knowledge of the Noble Path, fetters are destroyed like a tree struck by lightning. This kind of emancipation is known as samuccheda vimutti.
(4) Freedom from defilements attained through the four fruitions. It is the attainment of tranquillity. In this kind of emancipation extinction of fetters takes place. The fetters are forever stilled. This kind of emancipation is known as paṭipassaddhi vimutti.
(5) Freedom from defilements attained through the realisation of nirvāṇa. In this kind of emancipation known as nissaraṇa vimutti all wrong views are extinguished.

AS. I. 148-149, 288, 305; III. 543. CMA. IX. 347. DN. Mahāsīhanāda, Mahāsāropama, Mahāvedalla, Nandakovāda. SN. Godatta, Upassaya. VM. IV. 134-135.

vipaśyanā [vipassanā] insight. The unique feature of the Buddhist meditative development lies in its two approaches, namely, calm [śamatha] and insight [vipassanā]. These two have their own techniques and subjects. Vipaśyanā means seeing all things as they are. It denotes insight, intuitive cognition of the three characteristics of existence, namely, truth of the impermanence, suffering, and egolessness of physical and mental phenomena. It leads to direct realisation of truth.

     In the Mahāyāna, vipaśyanā stands for an analytical examination of the nature of things. Such investigation leads to insight into the true nature of the world, that is, emptiness. It penetrates into the ultimate reality of all phenomena. Vipaśyanā is a name for a technique which prevents arising of passions. Insight wisdom enables the aspirant to eradicate the defilements once for all; it directly and perfectly comprehends the ultimate reality of nature and puts an end to suffering in life. The light of insight wisdom surpasses any other light. The eradication of defilements, that takes place while attaining the highest level of insight wisdom, is compared to complete destruction of the roots of a tree so that it will never grow again. The insight wisdom is an outcome of the insight meditation.

     The insight meditation is to be developed on the following lines

(1) Discernment of the form (rūpa),
(2) Discernment of the mind (nāma),
(3) Contemplation on both (nāmarūpa),
(4) Both viewed as conditioned (pratītyasamutpāda),
(5) Application of the three characteristics, namely,

impermanency, suffering and no-soul.

     The stages of development of insight are described in terms of the nine insight-knowledges [vipassanā-ñāṇa] which form the sixth stage of purification. The insight is of both mundane and supramundane levels. The supramundane insight is of three kinds depending on its association. The three kinds of insight are the one that is associated with one of the four supramundane path, the one associated with one of the fruitions of the paths, the one regarding the extinction of consciousness [nirodha samāpatti].

DN. Mahāparinibbāna, Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna. MN. Ānāpānasati, Dhātuvibhaṅga, Kāyagatāsati, Mahāsaḷāyatanika, Mahāvedalla, Saḷāyatanavibhaṅga. MST. XI. 55; XII. 78; XIV. 90.

vipratipatti [vipatti] deviation, Vipratipatti means failure. The threefold failure is failure regarding morality (śīla vipratipatti) [sīla vipatti], holding wrong view (dṛṣṭi vipratipatti) [diṭṭhi vipatti], and wrong conduct (ācāra vipratipatti) [ācāra vipatti].

virāga [virāga] detachment. Rāga is attachment. Virāga means detachment from lust. The word virāga is often compounded with nirodha, that is, cessation. It comprises both -- the temporary cessation of the phenomena and its permanent cessation (nirvāṇa).

AS. I. 279. MN. Nandakovāda. MP. V. 296, 302.

virati [virati] abstinence. The deliberate abstinence from wrong speech, wrong bodily action, and wrong livelihood is known as virati.

AS. I. 207, 333-334. CMA. II. 88, 97-98.

Y

yāna [yāna] vehicle. Yāna means going or a means of motion, namely, a vehicle. In Buddhism yāna is the means

which helps people cross the saṃsāra and reach the other shore, that is, enlightenment. The two vehicles, namely, the Hīnayāna and the Mahāyāna are distinct from each other in their concepts of ontology, philosophy and ideals.

     The sacred books of Hīnayāna are in Pāli. In the Hīnayāna School, an Arhat is an ideal of spiritual endeavour.

     The Hīnayāna is the Sthaviravāda or Theravāda School of Buddhism which is also known as Southern School. It exists in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and some other South-east Asian countries. Hīnayāna is divided into the Śrāvaka yāna and the pratyekabuddha yāna.

(1) the vehicle of hearers (śrāvaka yāna), A Śrāvaka means a hearer, one who has heard the Law from the Buddha or a senior monk. The term was originally used for the disciples of the Buddha. A Śrāvaka is supposed to cross the saṃsāra by swimming on its surface. The Śrāvaka yāna leads the aspirant to the Arhathood.
(2) the vehicle of the solitary Buddha-s (pratyekabuddha yāna).

     Those who live in a time when there is no Buddha and hence no teacher, have to make an effort on their own to realise the truth. They do so by meditating on the formula of the Dependent Origination. They attain enlightenment through the realisation of the doctrine. Individual enlightenment is their goal and hence they do not exert themselves for others’ deliverance. They live in solitude. Such enlightened beings are known as the pratyekabuddha-s and their vehicle is known as pratyekabuddhayāna.

The Mahāyāna flourished in China, Japan, Tibet and other

Northern countries. The Mahāyāna is known as Bodhisattvayāna or Buddhayāna. The Sūtra-s of the Mahāyāna are in Sanskrit. They are regarded as esoteric teachings of the Buddha. The Mahāyāna school gave birth to the Bodhisattva ideal, which became its conspicuous feature.

     The areas of agreement between Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna schools are

1. Reverence to Gautama Buddha as the teacher of the doctrine.
2. Acceptance of impermanence as well as of the quintessence of the Buddha’s teachings, namely, suffering, doctrine of non-self, śīla, samādhi and prajñā.

     The areas of difference are

Ekayāna one vehicle

The Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra speaks about ‘one vehicle’. The Śrāvakayāna, the Pratyekabuddhayāna and the Bodhisattvayāna are mentioned as three vehicles.

     The Sūtra compares the Śrāvakayāna to a goat cart, the

Pratyekabuddhayāna to a deer cart, the Bodhisattvayāna to a bullock cart and the ekayāna to a great white bullock cart. The Mahāyāna is regarded as one vehicle which ends up in the perfect Buddhahood.

     The one vehicle stands for integration of the three vehicles which depict three different approaches to goal.

Vajrayāna the Thunderbolt or Diamond vehicle

Vajrayāna is considered as an offshoot of the Mahāyāna. Another trend of thought considers it as a separate vehicle. The sect is named after its symbol Vajra which means a thunderbolt or a diamond, the object used for worship in this sect. The symbol is found in the sceptre and the bell. In the form of a diamond Vajra symbolises firmness of mind and also the dharmakāya. In the form of a thunderbolt it indicates the resolve for enlightenment. The Madhyamaka metaphysics and the Yogācāra meditation dominate the philosophy and the practice of the sect. The Guhya Samāja Tantra describes the five Dhyānī Buddha-s. According to the Vajrayāna, the Ādi-Buddha, that is, the first Buddha appears to the meditator in the form of these Dhyānī Buddha-s. They are known as the Dhyānī Buddha-s because they are absorbed in meditation. Each one of them has a corresponding Śakti, that is, a female deity, a Bodhisattva and an aggregate. (For further details see Appendix G, Vajrayānam.)

     Feminine divinities and magico-religious practices in Hinduism became popular from the middle of the fifth century onwards.

     The magical Buddhism is based on the Tantra-s -- the scriptures of the sect which describe spells, formulas and rites of the sects. Tantricism might not have been in vogue in an organised form till the seventh century. Husan Tsang, a Chinese traveller, mentions about the monastic

communities that adhered to magical practices.

     Tantric Buddhism has two branches: the right hand branch and the left hand branch. The former became prominent in China and Japan. The main feature of this branch is devotion to male deities whereas the left hand sect (designated as Vajrayāna) regards the feminine counter-parts of the Buddha, Bodhisattva-s and the other divinities as objects of devotion. Devotion to Tārā or savioress became a prominent feature of Vajrayāna. Initiation of the aspirant became an essential feature. The initiated one could be a monk or even a layman.

     The practices of Vajrayāna comprise the repetition of mystical syllables, Yoga postures and meditation. Om maṇipadme hum is the famous mantra of Vajrayāna. Consumption of alcohol, meat eating, and sexual promiscuity were permissible as a part of practices in Vajrayāna. The philosophy of the thunderbolt vehicle is rooted in the doctrines of the Vijñānavādin-s and Mādhyamika-s.

     According to the Thunderbolt vehicle, emptiness is the characteristic of all things. However, the phenomenal world is identical with the universal emptiness. Thus it should not be discarded. The phenomenal world is considered as a means (upāya) to salvation. Prajñā is the supreme wisdom. It is identical with full consciousness of emptiness of all things. Union of upāya (masculine gender) and prajñā (feminine gender) culminates in Bliss.

MN. Dakkhiṇāvibhaṅga. MST. I. 3-6; XI. 55; XVI. 105; XIX. 164; XX-XXI. 169. SD. II. 21, 44, 52, 66, 69, 74; III. 106; V. 180. VM. I. 4.

yoga [yoga] yokes, bonds. The four cankers, namely, sensuous desire, desire for existence, false views, and ignorance are known as yoga-s as they yoke a human being to rebirth.

AS. I. 142, 250. AN. Yoga. CMA. VII. 265-266. DN. Dasuttara, Saṅgīti. SN. Ogha, Oghapañhā, Oghataraṇa, Yoga.

yoni [yoni] way of being born or generation, mode of existence. There are four yoni-s: (1) generation from egg, (2) from the womb of a mother, (3) from moisture, and (4) spontaneous such as rebirth in heaven or hell, etc. It is apparitional rebirth. It is without parents.

DN. Saṅgīti. MP. IV. 133. VC. III. 113.

Pāli

( - ) [abhisamācārika-sīla] morality with regard to good behaviour. The abhisamācārika sīla pertains to the external duties of a monk.

( - ) [bhavaṅga] life continuum. The consciousness one experiences in a dreamless state is known as bhavaṅga. This type of consciousness is akin to that which one experiences at the moments of conception and death.

     Bhavaṅga is the essential condition for a continued existence. It refers to the vital continuum in the absence of any process of mind or attention. Bhavaṅga is the current that forms the condition of being or existence, the indispensable condition of life; the function of being, or the functional state of subconsciousness. Bhavaṅga is the foundation of existence that is in the form of continuity -- a process or a flux. It arises and perishes every moment, flowing like a stream which is not the same for two consecutive moments.

     Bhavaṅga thought -- moments occur more frequently than any other type of consciousness. The bhavaṅga consciousness vibrates for a thought-moment and it passes away when a physical or mental object occurs to the mind. The current that is the essential condition of being or existence is known as bhavaṅga sota whereas the

subconscious life is known as bhavaṅga citta.

AS. I. 378, 380-381, 383, 385, 405. CMA. III. 122-123; IV. 174. MN. Mahāhatthipadopama, Mahātaṇhāsaṅkhaya.

( - ) [javana] impulsion, apperception. Javana means running in the sense of intellectual movement. The phase of full cognition is known as Javana. Javana thought moments are described in Abhidhamma. Javana moments are enumerated as seven. At the time of death five thought moments run. The determining thought moments precede javana. Karma, that is, the wholesome or unwholesome volition takes place at this stage. Hence it is psychologically an important stage. Javana does not produce rebirth for an Arhat.

AS. I. 346. CMA. III. 128-129; IV. 162, 167-170, 174-178; V. 228.

( - ) [Petavatthu] Petavatthu is the name of the text that belongs to the Khuddakanikāya. It deals with the stories of the departed beings. Some wandering ghost is asked by Nārada regarding the cause of his condition and the ghost answers. It is a simple way to explain the doctrine of karma.

( - ) [saṅgīti] Buddhist Council. The first Council was held in the rainy season following the parinirvāṇa of the Buddha. It was held at Rājagṛha, the capital of Magadha, around 483 BC. King Ajātaśatru donated the site near Rājagṛha for the assembly. Tradition states that around five hundred monks known as 'the great elders' (mahāsthavirāḥ) [mahātherā] assembled in a cave called Saptaparṇi [Sattapaṇṇi]. The purpose of the assembly was to fix a canon of religion (Dharma) and orderly discipline (Vinaya). It was presided over by Kāśyapa also known as Mahākāśyapa, the disciple of the Buddha. He recited sthaviravāda [theravāda] 'words of elders' -- the precepts of

the Buddha as were recorded in the memory of the older men. Upāli recited the rules of discipline (Vinaya) and Ānanda recited the discourses of the Buddha [Sutta].

     One hundred years after the death of the Buddha the second Council was held at Vaiśāli near Paṭanā about 380 BC. Seven hundred monks participated in the Council which lasted for eight months. Its purpose was to uphold the discipline of the saṅgha. Deviation from the rules prescribed for the order of discipline was discussed at length and unlawful relaxations, such as accepting money as a gift, eating a second meal in the afternoon, etc. were prohibited. The doctrine was revised and the core of the texts took a certain shape.

     The third council was held at Paṭanā (Pāṭaliputra) about 244-242 BC in the reign of king Aśoka to find a way out from the then existing controversies. A canon of texts was compiled in the Council. Tradition says that Tissa Moggaliputta convened an assembly of a thousand monks in order to compile a canon of texts of the Theravāda. He compiled Kathāvatthu and inserted it into the canon. It is surmised that the participants of the third Council put the books of the Abhidhamma at the end.

     This Council was a turning point in the history of Buddhism because as a consequence of the deliberations in the Councils, the propagation of Buddhism was undertaken and Mahendra [Mahinda], the son of king Aśoka went to Sri Lanka for the mission, and carried the texts of the canon along with him. About 83 BC, a Council of Arhat-s was held during the reign of Siṃhala King Vaṭṭa Gāmani Abhaya and the Tipiṭaka was written at Aluvihara in Sri Lanka.

     The fourth council was held around ad 100 at Jalandhar in Kashṃir under the auspices of king Kaniṣka who was from the Śaka race. He sought advice from Pārśva as he

was desirous to settle the dissensions in the brotherhood. The eighteen sects were acknowledged and were declared to contain the doctrine. The king built a monastery and invited monks to write commentaries on the Tripiṭaka-s. Accordingly, the three commentaries Upadeśa, Vinaya Vibhāṣa and Abhidhamma Vibhāṣā were composed. The commentaries on all the piṭaka-s consisted of 100,000 śloka-s each. These were the earliest books on the Mahāyāna. The language used in proceedings was most probably Sanskrit. This can be regarded as a special feature of the fourth council. Hereafter Sanskrit dominated Buddhist literature.

( - ) [tāyin] protector. The Sanskrit root trai-trāyate means to protect. Tāyin is one who protects himself and others, that is, jina. The word also means holy or religious. It is also found in the sense of protection.